{\rtf1{\info{\title Breve Historia Iilustrada de la Filosofia}{\author Otfried H offe}}\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0\deflang1033 {\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset128 Times New Roman;}{\f1\froman\fprq2\fchars et128 Times New Roman;}{\f2\fswiss\fprq2\fcharset128 Arial;}{\f3\fnil\fprq2\fcha rset128 Arial;}{\f4\fnil\fprq2\fcharset128 MS Mincho;}{\f5\fnil\fprq2\fcharset12 8 Tahoma;}{\f6\fnil\fprq0\fcharset128 Tahoma;}} {\stylesheet{\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\ fcs1 \af25\afs24\alang1033 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1033\langfe255\cgrid\langnp1033 \langfenp255 \snext0 Normal;} {\s1\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa120\keepn\nowidctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\outlinelevel0\ rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs32\alang1033 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs32\lang1033 \langfe255\loch\f1\hich\af1\dbch\af26\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp255 \sbasedon15 \ snext16 \slink21 heading 1;} {\s2\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa120\keepn\nowidctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\outlinelevel1\ rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \ab\ai\af0\afs28\alang1033 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\i\fs28\lan g1033\langfe255\loch\f1\hich\af1\dbch\af26\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp255 \sbasedo n15 \snext16 \slink22 heading 2;} {\s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa120\keepn\nowidctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\outlinelevel2\ rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs28\alang1033 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs28\lang1033 \langfe255\loch\f1\hich\af1\dbch\af26\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp255 \sbasedon15 \ snext16 \slink23 heading 3;} {\s4\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa120\keepn\nowidctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\outlinelevel3\ rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \ab\ai\af0\afs23\alang1033 \ltrch\fcs0\b\i\fs23\lang 1033\langfe255\loch\f1\hich\af1\dbch\af26\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp255 \sbasedon 15 \snext16 \slink24 heading 4;} {\s5\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa120\keepn\nowidctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\outlinelevel4\ rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs23\alang1033 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs23\lang1033 \langfe255\loch\f1\hich\af1\dbch\af26\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp255 \sbasedon15 \ snext16 \slink25 heading 5;} {\s6\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa120\keepn\nowidctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\outlinelevel5\ rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs21\alang1033 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs21\lang1033 \langfe255\loch\f1\hich\af1\dbch\af26\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp255 \sbasedon15 \ snext16 \slink26 heading 6;}}  {\s2 \afs28 {\b OTFRIED H\u214?FFE \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\s1 \afs32 {\b Breve historia ilustrada de la filosof\u237?a \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\ plain\hyphpar} {\s2 \afs28 {\b El mundo de las ideas a trav\u233?s de 18o im\u225?genes \par\pard\plain\hyphpar }\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} TRADUCCI\u211?N DE JOS\u201? LUIS GIL ARISTU
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{\line }  IX. RACIONALISMO Y EMPIRISMO 16 7 {\line }  X. LA \u201?POCA DE LA ILUSTRACI\u211?N 18 9 {\line }  XI. IMMANUEL KANT 21 1 {\line }  XII. EL IDEALISMO ALEM\u193?N 2 29 XIII. DE SCHOPENHAUER A MARX 24 9 {\line }  XIV. FILOSOF\u205?AS DE LA VIDA. DE NIETZSCHE {\line }  A DEWEY Y BERGSON 26 7 {\line }  XV. FENOMENOLOG\u205?A, EXISTENCIALISMO {\line }  Y HERMEN\u201?UTICA 28 9 {\line }  XVI. FILOSOF\u205?A ANAL\u205?TICA. DE FREGE A WITTGENSTEIN 31 1 XVII. FILOSOF\ u205?A TE\u211?RICA CONTEMPOR\u193?NEA 32 9 {\line }  XVIII. LA FILOSOF\u205?A PR\u193?CTICA CONTEMPOR\u193?NEA 34 3 UNA VISI\u211?N DE CONJUNTO. {\line }  FILOSOF\u205?A EN UN MUNDO \u218?NICO 35 9 \par\pard\plain\hyphpar} { {\i Referencias bibliogr\u225?ficas} 36 7 {\line }  {\i Procedencia de las ilustraciones} 36 9 {\line }  {\i \u237?ndice} 37 3 \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 \u191?POR QU\u201? FILOSOFAR? { Esperamos de la filosof\u237?a que plantee preguntas fundamentales para darles r espuestas igualmente fundamentales. En efecto, la filosof\u237?a se ocupa de cue stiones de principio que urgen, incluso, a toda la humanidad y pueden concentrar se en tres interrogantes decisivos: 1) \u191?Qu\u233? es la naturaleza y qu\u233 ? podemos saber de ella? 2) \u191?C\u243?mo debemos vivir en cuanto individuos y  en cuanto comunidad? 3) \u191?Qu\u233? debemos esperar de una buena existencia,  en esta vida o en la futura? A estas preguntas se suman otras que preocupan a \ u233?pocas concretas, como la relaci\u243?n entre raz\u243?n y revelaci\u243?n o  la relativa a si existe un progreso en la historia. \par\pard\plain\hyphpar} { Algunos tienen a los fil\u243?sofos por personas ajenas a la vida real. Sin emba rgo, quien examine m\u225?s en detalle esas preguntas que ellos plantean y que a fectan a la humanidad en general descubrir\u225? enseguida cuestiones parciales o subordinadas que nada tienen de ajeno a la realidad: 1{\i  a)} \u191?Hay una materia originaria o b\u225?sica constitutiva de la totalidad  de la naturaleza?; \u191?existe eso que significa la palabra \u171?\u225?tomo\u 187? en sentido literal: un componente \u250?ltimo e indivisible de la naturalez a? 1{\i  b)} \u191?Es la naturaleza espacial y temporalmente infinita, o, por el contrar io, finita y, por tanto, obra de un creador, de una divinidad? Es posible que es tas preguntas no tengan relevancia existencial, pero no cabe duda de que las sig uientes s\u237? la tienen: la cuesti\u243?n referente 2{\i a)} al bien y el mal y 2{\i  b)} a la libertad, sobre todo la libertad de la voluntad, y 2{\i c)} la que inquiere por la justicia del derecho y el Estado. Para terminar, tamb i\u233?n queremos saber 3 a) si nuestro bienestar, la felicidad, depende de nues tro buen comportamiento, de una vida moralmente buena: \u191?es rentable la honr adez moral o, por el contrario, la persona honrada es, en definitiva, un tonto? 3{\i b}) Y, en el caso de que la compensaci\u243?n no se d\u233? \u171?en esta vida\u 187?, \u191?hay esperanza de un alma inmortal, una vida eterna y una recompensa en el m\u225?s all\u225?? Aunque es posible eludir estas preguntas, resulta dif\ u237?cil negarlas. As\u237? pues, tenemos deFil\u243?sofo con una linterna. rech o a decir que es necesario filosofar. La {\i Fresco de Rafael.} filosof\u237?a no quiere hechizar el mundo en \par\pard\plain \hyphpar}
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 filosofar: la filosof\u237?a comienza a desarrollarse all\u237? donde la gente se siente insatisfecha por la manera en que se han planteado esas preguntas o c\ u243?mo se les ha dado respuesta hasta entonces. A partir de un descontento fund amental, de una cr\u237?tica radical, se establece un nuevo estilo de pre\par\pa rd\plain\hyphpar}
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puesto el sudor antes del premio\u187?. Como ocurre con cualquier otra disposici \u243?n natural, el ansia de saber no se hace realidad sin un esfuerzo. Adem\u22 5?s, en segundo lugar la cima de la sabidur\u237?a no se alcanza hasta haber sup erado otras cumbres previas. La filosof\u237?a solo surge donde se han desarroll ado ya las preguntas sencillas sobre el qu\u233? y el porqu\u233?, es decir, la sabidur\u237?a de la vida y la ciencia com\u250?n, por ejemplo, en forma de astr onom\u237?a. En el \u225?mbito donde aparece la filosof\u237?a griega, esas cumb res previas las conocemos sobre todo por Egipto y Babilonia. Los propios griegos  no reivindican el descubrimiento de la ciencia y la filosof\u237?a, sino que at ribuyen ese logro a los egipcios. Finalmente, solo quien no se vea agobiado por la b\u250?squeda elemental de la utilidad podr\u225? permitirse un saber no util itario. Mientras las necesidades de la vida no est\u233?n aseguradas para toda l a sociedad o para un grupo determinado, no se podr\u225? disponer del \par\pard\ plain\hyphpar}
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 { {\i Las matem\u225?ticas y el estudio de la {\line }  naturaleza son precursores de }\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 { {\i la filosof\u237?a te\u243?rica. En Ba}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 { {\i bilonia se observaba el cie {\line }  lo, seg\u250?n sabernos, y se }\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 para elaborar calen {\line }  darios y calcular por {\line }  adelantado los eclipses {\line }  lunares. Uno de los {\line }  medios auxiliares es {\line }  el zodiaco, que divide {\line }  en doce paites la fran}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 { {\i ja de la b\u243?veda celeste }\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 { {\i medici\u243?n derivan, tanto en }\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 { {\i Babilonia como en Egipto o Chi}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 calidad, tanto respecto a los caminos como a las respuestas. Y, en especial, si gue estando abierta la cuesti\u243?n de saber cu\u225?les son las preguntas deci sivas para una \u233?poca o para toda la humanidad. \par\pard\plain\hyphpar} { Quien quiera conocer con m\u225?s precisi\u243?n este proyecto, deber\u225? leer  personalmente a los grandes fil\u243?sofos. En un tiempo en que no debemos dar por supuesto que los conocimientos filos\u243?ficos b\u225?sicos est\u225?n muy difundidos, lo que intentamos ofrecer aqu\u237? por medio de una historia breve es una introducci\u243?n que trate de ganarse al lector para la cuesti\u243?n pr opiamente dicha. En este sentido, haremos hincapi\u233? en los textos cl\u225?si cos, que deber\u225?n leerse preferentemente con actitud cr\u237?tica y, al mism o tiempo, con amor. Todos los cap\u237?tulos concluyen con unas lecturas recomen dadas destinadas a aprender a filosofar, es decir, a pensar de forma viva, por n osotros mismos, con la gu\u237?a de los grandes fil\u243?sofos.* \par\pard\plain \hyphpar} { * El texto y las propuestas para las ilustraciones fueron presentados por primer a vez \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}{ * El texto y las propuestas para las ilustraciones fueron presentados por primer a vez 2000. Agradezco al p\u250?blico el gran inter\u233?s demostrado, y a mi co laborador Christoph Wolgast su m\u250?ltiple ayuda. \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 {\i Detalle de la Xilograf\u237?a de 1888 realizada al estilo de c. 1520. }{ \~\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 {\b I }{ \~\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} LOS INICIOS. ANTES DE S\u211?CRATES { La formaci\u243?n de la filosof\u237?a, lo mismo que el desarrollo intelectual d e un joven, es un proceso largo. El paso \u171?del mito al logos\u187? no se pro duce de repente, por una iluminaci\u243?n interior. La cuestionabilidad del mund o es algo de lo que los seres humanos solo logran percatarse poco a poco; as\u23 7? pues, no es posible trazar una frontera precisa. Cuando el poeta beocio Hes\u 237?odo (c. 700 a. C.) critica la religi\u243?n tradicional en su libro{\i  Teogonia} ('El origen de los dioses') se adelanta a la filosof\u237?a como cr\u 237?tica de la religi\u243?n. Y en su insistencia en diferenciar entre lo falso y lo verdadero se est\u225? insinuando una cr\u237?tica del conocimiento. \par\p ard\plain\hyphpar} { La filosof\u237?a en sentido estricto comienza en Jonia, la parte de Grecia cult uralmente abierta que practicaba el comercio y fundaba ciudades coloniales. Su o rigen se sit\u250?a en las ciudades portuarias de Asia Menor como Mileto, Colof\ u243?n y Efeso, en islas como Samos y en la Grecia colonial, en el sur de Italia . Sin embargo, los primeros pensadores, a los que los fil\u243?sofos posteriores  vuelven una y otra vez, no son solo fil\u243?sofos sino tambi\u233?n naturalist as y, adem\u225?s, \u171?sabios\u187?, es decir, consejeros de los pol\u237?tico s y del pueblo y, en particular, notables maestros de la lengua. \par\pard\plain \hyphpar} { Dado que S\u243?crates constituye un hito importante, los fil\u243?sofos anterio res a \u233?l\u8212?de Tales a Dem\u243?crito y los sofistas\u8212?se llaman pre socr\u225?ticos. El objeto principal de su pensamiento es la naturaleza como un todo y su orden y compostura, el cosmos; y, luego, el mundo religioso. La filoso f\u237?a comienza como filosof\u237?a natural, o cosmolog\u237?a, y como cr\u237 ?tica de la religi\u243?n; les sigue luego una reflexi\u243?n sobre todo cuanto existe: la ontolog\u237?a. Los asuntos humanos, y con ellos la \u233?tica \par\p ard\plain\hyphpar} y la filosof\u237?a pol\u237?tica, no ocupar\u225?n un pri{ {\i Los presocr\u225?ticos descubren el} mer plano hasta m\u225?s tarde. En este pro {\i orden \u171?l\u243?gico\u187? de la naturale} ceso, que se prolonga durante m\u2 25?s de {\i za. } La Astronom\u237?a.{\i  Fresco} doscientos a\u241?os, se forman no solo co{\i de Rafael pintado en un techo.} rrientes filos\u243?ficas diversas, sino tambi\u 233?n \par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\b 2 1 } { diferentes figuras y estilos, trabados, no obstante, unos con otros. Quien quier a explorarlos se topar\u225? con textos complicados y con la dificultad a\u241?a dida de que se han conservado \u250?nicamente de forma fragmentaria y en testimo nios posteriores, como \u171?fragmentos de los presocr\u225?ticos\u187?, accesib les solo a int\u233?rpretes dotados de capacidad creativa. \par\pard\plain\hyphp ar} { Los principales conceptos de los primeros fil\u243?sofos son los de \u171?physis \u187?, 'naturaleza', \u171?arch\u233?\u187?, 'principio'\u8212?en el sentido de  'origen' o 'comienzo' desde un punto de vista temporal, formativo o jer\u225?rq uico\u8212?, \u171?logos\u187?, 'concepto y argumento', 'orden', 'raz\u243?n' y 'lengua', y \u171?kosmos\u187?, el mundo ordenado y reconocible en su orden, ade m\u225?s de hermoso. En estos cuatro conceptos se perfila la importancia de los \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 { {\i Tales (c. 624-546 a. C), fil\u243?sofo, estudioso de la naturaleza, matem\u225?t ico, consejero pol\u237?tico y uno de los Siete Sabios, propone el agua como ori gen o principio del mundo, con lo que establece as\u237? un primer modo de filos ofar. {\line }  - Copia helen\u237?stica de una escultura. }\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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 { {\i Pit\u225?goras (c. 572-480 a. C.) funda en Italia meridional una comunidad influ yente parecida a una orden religiosa. En ella se manifiesta una tercera forma de  filosofar: la vinculaci\u243?n entre un programa de formaci\u243?n te\u243?rica  y un plan de vida pr\u225?ctico y asc\u233?tico. - Busto clasicista. }\par\pard \plain\hyphpar}
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teria original\u187?), sustituy\u233?ndola por algo novedoso: si la Tierra es es table porque se asienta sobre el agua, hay que preguntarse sobre qu\u233? descan sa el agua. Si se propone como respuesta otra materia, volveremos a preguntarnos  sobre \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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como por sus ideas\u187?. En el monote\u237?smo defendido aqu\u237? se entrev\u2 33?n ya cuatro de los componentes decisivos de una concepci\u243?n filos\u243?fi ca de Dios: que es \u250?nico, que se caracteriza por un superlativo \u171?absol uto\u187?\u8212?es el m\u225?s grande, y, adem\u225?s, (completamente) distinto\ u8212?, que es esp\u237?ritu y, finalmente, que es el autor de todas las cosas: \u171?Pone todo en movimiento sin experimentar fatiga, solo con la fuerza de su mente\u187?. {\line }  Escasean los testimonios fiables sobre Pit\u225?goras, quien, adem\u225?s, no d ej\u243? ning\u250?n escrito. Algunos estudiosos lo consideran \u250?nicamente u n mago y un profeta religioso; para otros es un importante fil\u243?sofo, matem\ u225?tico y te\u243?rico de la m\u250?sica, mientras que su contempor\u225?neo H er\u225?clito le reprocha ser un \u171?erudito\u187? y un \u171?habilidoso estaf ador\u187?. Para sus disc\u237?pulos es el sabio perfecto y, al mismo tiempo, un a encarnaci\u243?n de Apolo, por lo que le tributan culto divino. Podemos consid erar ciertos los siguientes datos: Pit\u225?goras naci\u243? el a\u241?o 572 en la isla de Samos, no lejos de Mileto; despu\u233?s del 530 a. C. emigr\u243? al sur de Italia por motivos pol\u237?ticos. All\u237? fund\u243? una comunidad par ecida a una orden religiosa que permit\u237?a la presencia de mujeres y ejerci\u 243? una notable influencia pol\u237?tica. Muri\u243? el 480 a. C. Gui\u225?ndos e por la m\u225?xima \u171?Sigue a Dios\u187?, los pitag\u243?ricos intentan \pa r\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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tural expuesta por \u233?l en su di\u225?logo{\i  Timeo.} A su vez, Filolao abandon\u243? la imagen geoc\u233?ntrica del mundo y situ\u243? en medio del cosmos un fuego central en torno al cual orbitan todos l os cuerpos celestes. \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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se y apagarse del fuego produce el dinamismo del mundo. 3) Her\u225?clito mencio na parejas de opuestos que, a pesar de su diferencia espec\u237?fica, se caracte rizan por dos rasgos comunes. En el d\u237?a y la noche, el invierno y el verano , la guerra y la paz, la vida y la muerte, la vigilia y el sue\u241?o, lo h\u250 ?medo y lo seco, arriba y abajo, la basura y el oro, los elementos no aparecen d e manera independiente sino que mantienen una relaci\u243?n mutua como polos opu estos. Y su acci\u243?n rec\u237?proca\u8212?Her\u225?clito la denomina \u171?gu erra\u187?, a la que llama \u171?padre y rey de todas las cosas\u187?\u8212?es u n proceso natural que mantiene unidas las parejas de contrarios. \par\pard\plain \hyphpar} { 4) Las famosas frases \u171?Todo fluye\u187? y \u171?Es imposible entrar dos vec es en el mismo r\u237?o\u187? no son de Her\u225?clito, pero debemos considerar aut\u233?nticos otros fragmentos en los que se habla de un r\u237?o. Desde el pu nto de vista de la \u171?filosof\u237?a natural\u187? y la \u171?ontolog\u237?a\ u187?, Her\u