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PRASHASAN(The Nepalese Journal of Public Administration)

November, 2011, 119th Issue

Government o� Nepa��Ministry of General Administration

Administrative Reform and Internal Management DivisionS�ngha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepa��

Phone: 4200187, 4200367, 4200368, 4200369, Fax No.: +977�1�4200187Web: www.moga.gov.np, ��ma��: �n�o�moga.gov.np

Editorial Board

Mr. Pratap Kumar Pathak, Secretary - ChairmanMr. Binod KC, Joint Secretary - MemberMr. Kiranraj Sharma, Under Secretary - MemberMr. Ram Prasad Ghimire, Under Secretary - Member Mr. DhirKumar Shrestha, Assistant Secretary - MemberMr. Bhabani Pd. Shrestha, Section Officer - Member Secretary

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l��f��v�f;�flji6;��jfx¿(Coverage)-!_ zlQmk|of]ugx'g]eP!)hgf/zlQmk|of]ux'g]eP@)hgfeGbfa9Lsfdbf/lgoldt

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;�lj�fx¿!_ Medical Benefit-;fdfGopkrf/k/LIf0fcflbtf]lsPsfc:ktfnjf:jf:YolSnlgsx¿af6

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lglZrtk|ltztgubIfltk"lt{lbg]_


#_ Maternity Benefit-dlxnflaldtn]k|;"ltsfsf/0faf6pTkGgx'g]/f]udfkfpg]_$_ Disablement Benefit-sfddfb'3{6gfePsf]jfk];futsf/0fn]x'g]/f]udfIfltk"lt{lbg]_%_ Dependent Benefit-laldtsf]d[To'ePdfcfl>tkl/jf/sf;b:on]kfpg]_^_ Funeral Expensessd[To'ePdf?=@%)));Ddkfpg].&_ Vocational Rehabilitation-$)k|ltztjf;f]eGbfa9Lk|ltztn]czQmePdfkfpg]_*_ Free Supply-c;QmnfO{lXjnr]o/,r:dfcflb;fdfglgMz'Nslbg].(_ Preventive Health Care-le6fldg,EoflS;g,:j:Yok/LIf0fcflblgMz'Nslbg]_!)_ Confinement efficacy-laldtsL>LdtLn];'Ts]/Lx'Fbfkfpg]ladfgePsf]eP?=@)))

;Ddlbg]_rLg rLgdf;/sf/Ltyf;/sf/åf/f:yflkt;+:yfsfsd{rf/Lx¿sfnflu;/sf/Lsf]ifaf6k"0f{¿kdfJoxf]g]{u/Lb'O{k|sf/sf:jf:Yoladfof]hgflyPt/kl5cfly{s;d:ofsfsf/0fTo;dfs]xLk|ltzts6f}tLePsf]lyof]. ;g\!((%dfkfOn6k|f]h]S6sf¿kdfe]mglhofg/lemlhofg;x/dfnfu"eO{kl5;g\!((*df;a}k|sf/sfsfdbf/sd{rf/LsfnfluUrban Employee's Basic Medical Insurance Systemnfu"u/]sf]lyof].;/sf/åf/fljQLoJoj:yfu/Lul/g]:jf:Yoladfof]hgfx¿dfsl7gfOpTkGgePsf]n]rLg;/sf/n]of]k|0ffnLnfu"u/]sf]lyof].o;k|0ffnLsfljz]iftfx¿b]xfoadf]lhd5g\M

of��gf!= General medical trust fund :ljz]ifk|sf/sfnflunfUg]vr{;f]wegf{ug{k|of]ux'g]sf]if.@=. Individual employee accounts :;fdfGopkrf/sfnflunfUg]vr{;f]wegf{ug{k|of]uug]{

;DalGwtsd{rf/Lsf]JolQmutcf}iflwpkrf/sf]if.

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tk{maf6@k|ltzt//f]huf/bftfsftk{maf6$k|ltztof]ubfgug'{kg]{.t/k|To]sk|fGtdfs]xLxb;Ddof]k|ltztkm/skm/sx'g]u/]sf].

@= cjsf;k|fKtsd{rf/Lx¿n]s'g}z'Nsa'emfpg'gkg]{.#=. s'nof]ubfg/sdsf]#)k|ltztIndividual Employee Accountsdf/&)k|ltztGeneral.

Medical Trust FunddfhDdfx'g].

If��x¿!= ;/sf/LtyfcGok|lti7fgdfsfdug]{;a}sfdbf/tyfsd{rf/Lx¿n]o;af6nfekfpg]

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�fkfg hfkfgdf:jf:YoladfnfO{Social Insurance Systemsf¿kdflnOPsf]5.ToxfF;fj{hlgsIf]qsf]Employee Health Insurance (EH)tyfNational Health Insurance (NH) nufotlghLIf]qaf6;~rflntljleGgk|sf/sf:jf:YoladfsDkgLx¿sfo{/t/x]sf5g\.

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pd]/sf]aRrfeP@)k|ltzt/&)jif{jf;f]eGbfdflysfj[4eP!)k|ltztdfq_laldtcfk}mn]/afFsL/sdladfaf6pknAwu/fOg].

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o;cGtu{txfntLgk|sf/sfInsurance.Schemes/x]sf5g\M!= Compulsory Coverage : o;df ;/sf/L If]qsf lqmofzLn tyf cjsf; k|fKt

sd{rf/Lx¿/lghLIf]qsfb;jf;f]eGbfa9Lsd{rf/Lx¿/x]sfk|lti7fgsflqmofzLnsd{rf/Lx¿nfO{ ;dfj]; ul/Psf] 5 . ;xeflutfsf nflu /f]huf/bftfsf tk{maf6 kfl/>ldssf]@k|ltzt/sd{rf/Lsftk{maf6!k|ltztz'Nsa'emfpg'kg]{k|fjwfg/flvPsf]5.

o;of��gf�f;x�fuLx¿�f��b��xfosf��;�lj�flb�g��u��sf��5M • In-patient and Out-patient services at all health care levels,


• Laboratory exams, x-ray, and other diagnostic imaging procedures.�

• High-tech health services, such as open-heart surgery,

• Reimbursable drugs

@= Voluntary Schemes: These include health insurance for school children, with a

per capita contribution collected by the educational institutions; and 3 Farmer Voluntary

Insurance Scheme; where farmers contribute 30 per cent of their premium and the provincial

government contributes 70 percent.�

#= Schemes fully Subsidized by the Government: These include reward schemes for merit, free

health cards for the poor, etc.� But these schemes disadvantage the most vulnerable in the

face.of.informal.user.charges.

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Practioner)/$)xhf/g;{x¿sfo{/t5g\. ;g\@))*÷)(sfnflu;/sf/n]NHSnfO{!))c/akfpG8sf]ah]6lbPsf]lyof].of]/sdk|To]sa]nfotLgful/ssfnfluk|ltJolQm!(*)kfpG8x'gcfpFb5.


sfof��jog�f;�:of NHSdfvf;u/Lb'O{k|sf/sf;d:ofx¿uDeL/¿kdfp7]sf]dx;';ul/Psf]5.;]jfk|bfgug]{sd{rf/LtGqfTdsz}nL/NHS Trustsx¿dfk/]sf]ljQLo;d:of.oL;d:ofx¿;dfwfgug{;/sf/n]h'nfO{!),@)!)dfEquity and excellence liberating the NHSgfds;'wf/sfo{qmd3f]if0ffu/]sf]5,h;n]Public care trust/strategic health authoritiesx¿dfw]/}kl/jt{gug]{k|:tfju/]sf]5.

(= :jf:Yol��fsf;D��fg��kf�sf��g��j g]kfndf :jf:Yo ladf;DaGwL sfg'gL Joj:yf gePsf]n] c;ª\ul7t ¿kdf dfqst}st}:jf:Yo ladfof]hgfnfu"ePsf]b]lvG5 ./f]huf/sf]If]qdf:jf:Yo;]jfsfnflus]xLJoj:yfePsf]afx]s;fdflhsladfsf]cjwf/0ffcg'¿kladfof]hgf;~rfngePsf]b]lvFb}g. s]xLlghLladfsDkgLx¿-o'gfO6]8,;u/dfyf,k|'8]gl;on,Pg=aL=,lxdfnogOG;'/]G;sDkgLx¿_n]:jf:Yoladfof]hgf;~rfngdf/fv]sf]ePklgcfd;xeflutfsf]cefjsfsf/0fTo:tfof]hgfx¿k|efjsf/L x'g;s]sf] b]lv++b}g . g]kfndfs]xL;fgf] kl/df0fdftLgk|sf/sf:jf:Yoladfof]hgfrn]sf]b]lvPsf]5.• Hospital based micro-social health insurance.�

• Community, Health post-based Insurance model.�

• Cooperative Model.�

Hospital based micro-social health insurance ;aeGbfklxn]aL=kLsf]O/fnfd]df]l/onc:ktfndf;'?ul/Psf]lyof].o;dfljleGgju{sfu/Lsl/a%^%kl/jf/;+nUglyP.o;dffree consultations and investigations, out and

in-patient service,lgwf{l/t;Ldf;Ddfree hospital beds, medicines and operationcflb;'ljwfx¿;dfj];ul/Psf]lyof].of]sfo{qmddfufpFljsf;;ldltsf]cfly{s;xof]uklg;dfj];ul/g]k|fjwfg/x]sf]lyof].t/xfnof]s'gcj:yfdf5eGg]hfgsf/Lk|fKtx'g;s]sf]5}g.

Community, Health Post-based Insurance Model !(&^dfnlntk'/lhNnfsfs]xLufpFljsf;;ldltdfnfu"ul/Psf]of]of]hgfdf^cf]6f:jf:Yo;]jfs]Gb|af6:jf:Yo;]jfk|bfgug]{;]jfx¿df;Lldtul/Psf]lyof].o;n]tLufpFljsf;;ldltsf%@k|ltzt;Ddhgtfdfla:tf/kfPsf]lyof].:yfgLolgsfon]ladfdf;xefuLx'g]n]ltg'{kg]ladfz'Nstf]Sg;Sg]Joj:yful/Psf]of]hgfdf;/sf/tyf:yfgLolgsfoaf6cg'bfgsf]ck]Iffklgul/Psf]lyof].:jf:Yo;]jfsfnflukf6gc:ktfnn];'ljwfo'Qmb/df;]jfk|bfgug]{Joj:yfu/]sf]lyof].xfnof]of]hgfsf]cj:yfsfaf/]dfs'g}hfgsf/LpknAwx'g;s]g.kf6gc:ktfndfo;af/]dfhfgsf/LlnghfFbfo:fsf]s'g}cl:tŒj/x]sf]kfOPg.


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k|ltj]bg_,sf7df8f}FM>dtyfoftfoftJoj:yfdGqfno.–––,g]kfnsf]cGtl/d;+ljwfg,@)^#,sf7df8f}FMsfg'glstfaJoj:yf;ldlt.–––,g]kfnsf]lqjifL{oof]hgf-@)^$–@)^&_,sf7df8f}FM/fli6«oof]hgfcfof]u.–––,g]kfn>dzlQm;j]{If0f-bf];|f]_@)^$÷^%,sf7df8f}FMg]kfn;/sf/.–––,;fdflhs;+/If0f;DaGwLk|ltj]bg,@)^&,sf7df8f}F M;fdflhs;+/If0fk|ltj]bgsfo{bn,cy{

dGqfno.–––,;fdflhs;'/IffeQfljt/0fl;4fGt÷Jojxf//r'gf}tL,sf7df8f}FM:yfgLoljsf;dGqfno.–––,;fdflhs;'/Iff;~rfngsfo{ljlw,@)^%,sf7df8f}FMg]kfn;/sf/.–––,:yfgLo:jfoQzf;gP]g,@)%%,sf7df8f}FMsfg'glstfaJoj:yf;ldlt.–––,:yfgLo:jfoQzf;glgodfjnL,@)%^,sf7df8f}FMsfg'glstfaJoj:yf;ldlt.–––,Social Security, Geneva : A New Consensus International Labour Office.�

– – –,Affordable and not an illusion, costing of basic social protection benefit for Nepal 2007-2034, 2008 (Technical Note,), Geneva : Social Security Department, International Labour Office.�

–––,Social Security Policy Briefing paper 03 Canlow-income Countries afford basic social security? Geneva : Social security Department, International Labour Office.�

– – –, Social security Policy Briefing Paper-6Asia Pacific Regional High-Level Meeting on Socially Inclusive Strategies to Extend social security Coverages New Delhi India, 2008, Geneva : Social security Department,

International Labour Office.�

– – –, Social Protection in Nepal, Human development Unit South Asia Region, World Bank (UN Published) June-2009.�


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Commission (CSC)n]tf]s]sfkbx¿kb{5g\.Joj:YffksLokbx¿-ManagerialPosition)cGtu{tljefueGbftNnf]:t/sfsfof{nosfk|d'vx¿tyflghfdtL;]jfcfof]un]lglb{i6u/]sfkbx¿kb{5g\.1fgsdL{kbx¿(Knowledge worker positions_cGtu{tTo:tfvf;kbx¿kb{5g\,hxfFpkflw k|fKt of]Uo JolQmx¿ x'G5g\ . lghfdtL;]jfcfof]un] of]Uotf lgwf{/0f ub{5 . ;fdfGokbx¿ (General Position_cGtu{ttLsfo{x¿kb{5,h;nfO{ lghfdtL;]jfcfof]un]sfo{sf/L,Joj:YffksLo tyf 1fgsdL{ kb xf]Og egL ls6fg u/]sf] x'G5 . o;} u/L k|To]s juL{s/0fdfGo"gtddfb'O{tx-k|fylds/pRr_/flvPsf]x'G5.k|fylds/Joj:yfksLotxcGtu{tk|fylds/pRrtxx¿kb{5g\eg]1fgsdL{kbcGtu{tcEof;sdL{,k];fljb\,pRrk];fljb\, ljz]if1/;Nnfxsf/txx¿kb{5g\.o;}u/L;fdfGokbcGtu{tsfof{Gjog,cg'ejL,bIf/pRrbIftxx¿kb{5g\.o;/Lkbtyftxx¿ls6fgePkl5txagfOg,g5f]Kg]u/]/tnadfglgwf{/0f/j[lQljsf;sfk|lqmofx¿toug]{sfdlghfdtL;]jfpkcfof]u(Civil Service Sub Commission (cssc)n]ub{5.o:tfpkcfof]ux¿ljz]ifdGqfno:t/Lo,ljefu:t/Lo/k|f]leG;:t/Lox'g]ub{5g\.

;�b��;f�fu|L–––,g]kfn, ;x>fAbL ljsf; nIf, k|ult k|ltj]bg, @)!),sf7df8f}F Mg]kfn;/sf/,/fli6«oof]hgf

cfof]u.

–––,k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof]u -sf]O/fnf cfof]u_ sf] k|ltj]bg,@)$*,sf7df8f}F.

–––,k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof]u, -emf cfof]u_ sf] k|ltj]bg,@)@%,sf7df8f}F.

–––,k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof]u -yfkf cfof]u_ sf] k|ltj]bg,@)##,sf7df8f}F.

–––,Managing Government expenditure, (April 1999), Asian Development Bank.�

–––,Civil service Act, BE 2551 (2008), Thailand : Office of the Civil Service Commission.�

–––,Sharing Innovative experiences, (2011), Volume (5) Rome : UNDP.�

–––,The Theory of public finance, Richard A.� Musgrave 1959.�


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ykGo"gLs/0fdfof]ubfglbO{sfa{go'lg6k|fKtu/]sf]x'g'kb{5.cyjf:jtMsfa{gGo"gLs/0f:t/sf]cfwf/(Baseline)eGbfcltl/Qm¿kdfsfa{go'lg6k|fKtdfkgof]UoelgG5.

v_ Methodologies:k|To]sCDMkl/of]hgfsf]l;nl;nfdfkl/of]hgfn]:jtMsfa{gGo"gLs/0f:t/sf]dfkgsfljlwx¿(Baseline Methodology)Pj+kl/of]hgfn]k|fKtug]{yksfa{go'lg6sf]dfkgsf]ljlw(Monitoring Methodology)sf;DaGwdfUNFCCCaf6dfGotfk|fKtljlwx¿sf]k|of]uug'{kb{5.

u_ National Approval:CDMkl/of]hgfsfk|:tfjsx¿n]cfof]hgfsf]btf{sfnflub]zleqsfnflutf]lsPsf]DNA/cGob]zsfnfluSof]6f]k|f]6f]snkIfaf6tf]lsPsf] lgsfoaf6:jLs[ltlng'kb{5.g]kfndfCDMProjectx¿sfnfluDesignated National Authority (DNA)sf¿kdfg]kfn;/sf/n]jftfj/0fdGqfnonfO{tf]s]sf]5.

3_ Third Party CertificationMCDMcfof]hgfaf6k|fKtsfa{go'lg6(CER)sfnfluUNFCCCaf6tf]lsPsfcGt/f{li6«o lgsfo (Certifies) x¿n] kl/of]hgfsf] / k|fKt u/]sf] sfa{go'lg6af/]l;kmfl/;u/]kl5dfqCERk|fKtu/]sf]dflgG5.


%= ;L=�L=P�=�fof��gfsf��r�� ;fdfGotM ;L=8L=Pd=cfof]hgfaf6CERk|fKtug]{qmddfcfof]hgfsflgDglnlvt&cf]6fr/0fx¿k"/fug'{kb{5.

The CDM Project Cycle

Source: Introduction to the CDM, UNEP RISOE Centre, 2002


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;�b��;f�u|Lx¿–––,hnjfo' kl/jt{g gLlt@)^&,sf7df8f}FMg]kfn;/sf/,jftfj/0fdGqfno.Joergen Fenhann & Miriam Hinostroza (2010), CDM Infromation and Guide Book, Denmark: UNEP

Risoe Center.�– – –,Development and Climate Change, World Development Report, 2010, Washington DC: The

World Bank.�–––,.The Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms, Bonn, Germany: Climate Change Secretariat (UNFCCC),.�–––,.Clean Development Mechanisms, Bonn, Germany: Climate Change Secretariat (UNFCCC).�

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PRASHASAN The Nepalese Journal of Public Administration�0

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;�b��;"rLHeller, Peter S.�,"Understanding Fiscal Space" International Monetary Fund, 2005.�

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k|zf;g ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g;DaGwL klqsf �1

pk�l��"�sJoj:�fkg(Result Oriented Management)

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!= ljifok|j��z ;fj{hlgs If]q;Fu ;DalGwt k|zf;gnfO{ ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g elgG5 eg] lghL If]qsf]k|zf;gnfO{ Joj:yfkgelgG5 ./fHosf]pTklQ/ ljsf;;Fu;Fu};fj{hlgsIf]qsf]k|zf;gdfklgJofkskl/jt{g/ljsf;x'+Fb}cfPsf]5.;g\!(*)sf]bzsdf;fj{hlgsk|zf;geGbflghL If]qsf] Joj:yfkgsf] sfdsf/afxL a9L k|efjsf/L b]lvPsf]n] lghL If]qsf] Joj:yfkgsf]cjwf/0ffnfO{;/sf/LIf]qsf]sfdsf/afxLdf;d]tcjnDagug{yflnof].;/sf/LIf]qdf;d]tlghL Joj:yfksLocjwf/0ff nfu" ug]{ gofF ;fj{hlgs Joj:yfkgsf] l;4fGtsf] ljsf;kZrft\;fj{hlgsk|zf;gnfO{klgJoj:yfkgleq};dfj];ul/Psf]kfOG5.ctMxfn}sflbgdfk|zf;gnfO{Joj:yfkgsf];dfgfyL{zAbsf¿kdfk|of]uug]{ul/G5. pknAw;fwg/;|f]tsf]s'zntfPj+bIftfk"j{spkof]uu/Llgwf{l/tnIo/p2]Zok|flKtsfnfluul/g];fd"lxsk|of; (The act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively)nfO{Joj:yfkgelgG5.Joj:yfkgsfu'?dflgg]Peter Druckern]Marketing/InnovationnfO{Joj:yfkgsf]cfwf/e"tsfo{eg]sf5g\.Joj:yfkgsf;DaGwdfw]/}cWoogx¿eP.oL;a}cWoogx¿;ª\u7gnfO{;ª\ul7t/Jojl:ytub}{pknAw;|f]t/;fwgsf]pRrtdk|of]uu/L;ª\u7gsf]lgwf{l/tnIo/p2]Zos],s;/Lk|fKtug{;lsG5eGg]ljifodfg}s]lGb|tePsf]kfOG5.pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkg(Result Based Management)Joj:yfkgsfIf]qdfljsl;tgjLgtdz}nLxf],h;n];ª\u7gn]k|fKtug]{pknlAwnfO{cfwf/dfgLtb\g'¿k;ª\u7g/o;sfsfo{df;'wf/ul/g'kg]{wf/0ffJoQmub{5.

@= pk�l��"�sJoj:�fkgsf��kl�ro pknlAwd"ns Joj:yfkg oyfy{df gofF cjwf/0ff xf]Og . pknlAwd"ns Joj:yfkgsf]cjwf/0ffsf]pTklQ;g\!(%)dfk|sflztThe Practice of Managementk':tsdfkm{tPeter.Druckern]cufl8;f/]sf]p2]Zod"nsJoj:yfkg(Management by Objectives)sf]l;4fGtaf6ePsf]dflgG5.Peter Drucker n]p2]Zod"nsJoj:yfkgsf¿kdflgDglnlvtl;4fGtpNn]vu/]sflyPM

* pk;lrj, k|wfgdGqL �yf dlGqkl��fb\sf] sfof{no �


• ;ª\u7gsf]nIo/p2]Zolgwf{/0f,• ;ª\u7gsfk|To]s;b:osfnfluljz]ifp2]Zolgwf{/0f,• ;xeflutfd"nslg0f{ok|lqmof,• :ki6;dotflnsf/• sfo{;Dkfbgd"Nofª\sg/;'emfj.

oLl;4fGtx¿pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkg;FucToGtglhs/x]sf5g\.p2]Zod"nsJoj:yfkg;j{k|yd lghLIf]qdfnfu"ul/Psf] lyof] .kl5;/sf/LIf]qdfklgo;nfO{cfTd;ftul/of] .;g\!(()sf]bzsdf;/sf/Lsfo{;Dkfbgdfsfo{s'zntfsf]cefj,;+/rgfut;d:of,a9\bf]k|lt:kwf{/ljZjJofkLs/0f,;/sf/k|lthgtfsf]ljZjf;dfsdL,c;n/pQ/bfoL;]jfk|jfxsf]dfu/hjfkmb]lxtfnufotsf/0faf6;/sf/LIf]qdf;'wf/sfk|of;x¿ul/P.w]/}/fi6«n];fj{hlgsIf]qsf]sfo{k|lqmofdfLogical Framework (Logframe) Approach1cjnDagu/].;fj{hlgsIf]q;'wf/sfo{qmdcGtu{tul/Psf]o;k|of;nfO{cGt/f{li6«oljsf;;ª\u7gx¿n]klgt'?GtckgfP.;x;|fAbLljsf;nIo,@)))pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgk4ltcjnDagu/Ltof/ul/Psf]kfOG5.;g\@))@sf]The Monetary Consensusn]klgcfk\mgf]sfo{k4ltsf]d'Vos8Lsf¿kdfljsf;nfO{k|efjsf/Lagfpg]/cfly{s;|f]t/;fwgsf]s'zntfk"j{skl/rfngug]{s'/fdfhf]8lbPsf]5.o;/Lg};g\@))$sf]Joint Marrakech Memorandumn]klgAid Effectivenessdfhf]8lbPsf]5.o;cltl/QmParis Declaration on Aid Effectiveness,@))%n]Country Ownership, Alignment, Harmonization, Managing for Results /Mutual Accountabilityu/L%cf]6fl;4fGtnfO{hf]8lbPsf] 5 . o;/L pknlAwd"ns Joj:yfkg jt{dfgdf ;fj{hlgs If]q Pj+ cGt/f{li6«o ljsf;;fem]bf/x¿sf] sfo{k|0ffnLsf ¿kdf ljsf; ePsf] kfOG5 . pknlAwd"ns Joj:yfkgnfO{ gofF;fj{hlgsJoj:yfkgsf]Psefus}¿kdflnOG5.pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgnfO{Results-based Management, Performance Management /Managing for Outcomesh:tfgfdaf6;Daf]wgul/Psf]kfOG5.pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkg;ª\u7gsf]p2]Zok|flKtsfnfluJoj:yfkgk|efjsfl/tf/hjfkmb]lxtfa9fpg]Joj:yfkgsf]Pp6f;fwg(Result-based Management is management tool to improve management effectiveness and accountability in achieving results) xf].o;n]pknlAwnfO{cfwf/dfgLJoj:yfkgn]tb\g'¿k;ª\u7gsfcGokIfdf;'wf/ug'{kg]{s'/fdfhf]8lbG5.pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn]d"ntMJoj:yfkgsflgDglnlvtIf]qnfO{;d]6b5.• Identifying strategic elements, - Results (inputs, outputs, outcomes, impacts) and their causal relationship, - Indicators to measure success, - Assumptions or risks that may influence success or failure• Measuring Performance,• Decision-Making and Reporting.�

pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn]k|fKt;Lldt;|f]tsf]pRrtdpkof]uug{sfnflud2tub{5/of]hgtfsf]cfjZostfkl/k"lt{sfnflu;fGble{sdflgG5.of]Joj:yfkgsf]gjLgz}nLxf],h;n]inputaf6cfk\mgf]Wofgljsf;sfx/]sr/0fdfdfkgug{;lsg]Outputs x'g'kg]{dfs]lGb|tu/]sf]

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5.pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn]nIo lgwf{/0fu/]/sfo{ug'{kg]{ /nIoSpecific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant / Time-bound x'g'kg]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbPsf] 5 . Pl;ofnL ljsf; a}+ssfcg';f/pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgnfO{lgDgfg';f/a'e\mg;lsG5M Results management is simultaneously (I) a management approach and (II) a set of tools for strategic planning, monitoring and evaluating performance, reporting, and organizational improvement and learning.� Results management improves organizational performance by applying traditional tools such as strategic planning, results frameworks, monitoring, and program evaluation in the modern context of decentralization, networking, flexibility, participatory processes and accountability.�

#= pk�l��"�sJoj:�fkgsfljz��if�fx¿ pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsfljz]iftfnfO{b]xfoadf]lhdpNn]vug{;lsG5.

-s_ A Logical Approach to Cause and Effect Cause and Effect Relationship /To;sf]ljZn]if0fpknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsf]Psk|d'vljz]iftfxf].

-v_ Focus on Outcomes pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsf]csf]{ljz]iftflgwf{l/tOutcomesdfWofgs]lGb|tug'{xf].Outcomes Oriented Joj:yfkgePsfsf/0fpknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn];/f]sf/jfnfx¿nfO{x]g]{b[li6sf]0f/;]jfu|fxLk|ltul/g]Jojxf/dfdf}lnskl/jt{gNofOlbPsf]5.

-u_ Leadership pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn]g]t[Tjn];xof]uLnfO{lbzflgb]{zug]{/;ª\u7gsf]d'Vosfo{/p2]Zox¿a'emfpg]¿kdfdfqcfk"mnfO{;Lldtg/fvL;ª\u7gsf]nIok|flKtsfnfluJojxf//ljrf/df;d]tc¿sf]cfbz{aGg]u/Le"ldsflgjf{xug'{kg]{s'/fdfhf]8lbPsf]]5.

-3_ Participation pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn] Joj:yfkgdfStaffs /Stakeholderssf];xeflutfdfhf]8lbG5 .;xeflutfn] lhDd]jf/Laf]wnfO{ a9fjf lbg'sf;fy} oyfy{nIo lgwf{/0fdfd2tub{5 .;xeflutfn]]Risks/AssumptionnfO{;Tosf]glhsNofpgklg;xof]uub{5.;fy},Participationn]cg'udg/sfo{;Dkfbgdf;'wf/Nofpg'sfcltl/Qm;DalGwtljifodfLesson learnedu/Leljiodftbg'¿kug{Joj:yfkgnfO{;'emfjklglbG5.

-ª_ Learning and Improvement /fd|f]lg0f{osfnflu;'wfl/Psf]1fgcfjZosx'g]7flgG5.ctMpknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn]sfdub}{hfFbfl;s]sfs'/faf6kf7lnO{Joj:yfkgdf;'wf/ug'{kg]{s'/fub{5.

-r_ Integrating Stakeholder and Client Concerns ;a};fj{hlgsIf]q/ljsf;;ª\u7gsfcfcfk\mg};/f]sf/jfnfx¿x'G5g\.;/f]sf/jfnfx¿k|lt;ª\u7glhDd]jf/x'g]ePsf]n]pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgdf;/f]sf/jfnfnfO{;+nUgu/fOg'kb{5.


;fj{hlgsxf];\jflghLb'j}If]qsf;ª\u7gn]Joj:yfkgnfO{;kmnagfpg]xf]eg]Transparent and Accountable Strategic Partnership dfWofglbg'kg]{s'/fdfpknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn]hf]8lbPsf]5.

$= pk�l��"�sJoj:�fkgsfr�0fx¿ pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsf;fdfGotMlgDglnlvtr/0fx¿/x]sf5g\M

-s_ Analysis and Needs Assessment of]pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsf]k|ydr/0fxf] .o;df;ª\u7gsf]cfGtl/styfafXojftfj/0f(Political, Economic, Social and Technical Environment-PEST)/;ª\u7gsf;ankIf,sdhf]/ kIf, cj;/ / xfFsx¿ (Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats- SWOT)ljZn]if0ful/G5/;ª\u7gsf]cfjZostfsf]d"Nof+sgul/G5.o;df;ª\u7gdfsfdug]{sd{rf/LPj+;/f]sf/jfnfJolQmx¿sf]/fo,k/fdz{;d]tlnOG5.

-v_ Strategic Planning of]pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsf]bf];|f]r/0fxf].o;dfklxnf]r/0fsf];ª\u7gsf]cfGtl/styfafXojftfj/0fsf]ljZn]if0fPj+cfjZostfklxrfgsfcfwf/df;ª\u7gsf]/0fgLltsof]hgftof/kfl/G5./0fgLltsof]hgfdfd"ntM;ª\u7gsf]p2]Zo,nIo,Results Chain, Risks /;"rsx¿lgwf{/0ful/Psfx'G5g\.

-u_ Operational Planning pknlAwd"ns Joj:yfkgsf] t];|f] r/0fdf ;ª\u7gsf] /0fgLlts of]hgfsf cfwf/dfljefuLo,sfof{nout,dxfzfvfutjfzfvfut¿kdf/0fgLltsof]hgfsfof{Gjogsfo{of]hgflgdf{0ful/G5.sfo{of]hgfdfRefined Results and Indicators, Detailed Outputs and Activities, Performance Measurement System lgwf{/0ful/Psfx'G5g\.

-3_ Implementation pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsf]rf}yf]r/0fdf/0fgLltsof]hgfsf]sfof{Gjogul/G5.o;r/0fdfsfo{of]hgfdfpNn]vul/Psfsfo{x¿sf]sfof{Gjogu/LOutput Deliverul/G5.

-ª_ Monitoring pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsf]csf]{r/0fMonitoringxf].o;r/0fdfsfof{Gjogr/0fdfk|fKtePsf;"rsx¿;ª\sngul/G5/sfo{of]hgfdfpNn]vul/Psf;"rsx¿;FuTo;nfO{le8fO{ljZn]if0ful/G5.o;af6sfof{Gjogk|lqmofsfaf/]dfhfgsf/Lk|fKtx'G5.

-r_ Reporting and Review of]pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsf]clGtdr/0fxf] .o;dfMonitoringaf6k|fKt;"rgftyftYofª\ssfcfwf/dfJoj:yfkgPj+;/f]sf/jfnfnfO{cfjZos;"rgfk|jfxul/G5.o;sfcfwf/dfsfof{Gjogk|lqmofnfO{k|efjsf/LagfpgcfjZoslg0f{o;d]t lnOG5 .;fy},o;af6k|fKt1fgjfl;s]sfs'/fx¿csf]{r/0fsf]of]hgflgdf{0fdfpkof]uul/G5.


%= pk�l��"�sJoj:�fkgsfr�gf��Lx¿

-s_ Organizational Culture pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsfnfluResultpGd'v;ª\u7gfTdsz}nLsf]l;h{gf/ljsf;ul/g'cfjZosx'G5.k/Dk/fut¿kdfoutputs/outcomessf];6\6fdfinputs/processdfhf]8lbFb}cfPsf;ª\u7gnfO{;f]adf]lhdsf]z}nLljsf;ug'{lgs}r'gf}tLk"0f{x'g]b]lvG5.

-v_ Resistance to Change pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn]results.dfWofglbG5/To;sfnfluresults.measurementsf] cfjZostf x'G5 . o;sf nflu Outputs, Outcomes, Impact Analysis sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .of] sfo{ hl6n / emGeml6nf] x'G5 . kmn:j¿k Joj:yfks / cGo sd{rf/Lx¿ pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgnfO{;xh}:jLsf/ug{clgR5'sx'g;Sb5g\.

-u_ Tendency to Make Things Complicated pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgdfnIo/;"rsx¿lgwf{/0fu/Lsfo{ul/g]ePsf]n]oLnIo/;"rsx¿:ki6gx'g],Pscsf{;Fug5'l§g],bf]xf]l/g],ldl;g](Overlapping)8/x'G5.o:tf]eof]eg]To;n]ljifoj:t'jfsfo{nfO{g}hl6nagfO{sfo{ug{,sfo{cg'udgug{/k|ltkmnk|fKtug{ufx|f]x'G5.

-3_ Inadequate Staff Incentives pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn]Joj:yfkgsf]d'Vop2]Zolgwf{l/tnIok|fKtug'{nfO{dfGg]ePsf]n] ;f]sf nflusd{rf/Lx¿nfO{ sfo{k|lt k|f]T;flxtug{ a9L ;'ljwf lbg'kg]{ x'G5 . o;sfnfluJoj:yfkgn]cfk\mgf]ljrf/dfdf}lnsleGgtfNofO{sd{rf/Lx¿sf]efjgfnfO{cfTd;ftu/LpgLx¿nfO{nIok|flKtsfnfluk|f]T;flxtx'g]jftfj/0fsfodug'{kb{5.sd{rf/Lx¿nfO{ckof{Kt;'ljwflbOof]eg]lgwf{l/tp2]Zok|fKtx'g;Qm}g.

-ª_ Insufficient Training and Organizational Support w]/}h;f]cj:yfdf;ª\u7gn]s'g}tof/Lljgfg}gofF l;4fGtx¿sf]cjnDagug]{u/]sf]kfOG5 .pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkggofFx'gfn]o;sfaf/]dfsd{rf/Lx¿cgle1x'g;Sb5g\ .t;y{;ª\u7gn]sd{rf/LnfO{o;;DaGwLtflnd,k|lzIf0fk|bfg/kof{Kt;Gbe{;fdu|Lsf]ljt/0fug'{kb{5.o;f]ePgeg]pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkg;kmnx'g;Sb}g.

�=Five Key Success Factors of Results Management

-s_ Strong, Focused Leadership pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsfnflujl/i7Joj:yfksn];ª\u7gsf]p2]Zo,nIo/sfo{sf;DaGwdfcfk"mdftxtsd{rf/Lx¿nfO{:ki6¿kdfa'emfpg'kb{5.;ª\u7gsf]sfo{Jojxf/,d"No,dfGotf/ljrf/dfkl/jt{gNofO{kl/0ffdk|flKtdfs]lGb|t/xg];+:sf/sf]ljsf;ug{sfnflu;'b[9g]t[Tjsf]cfjZostfx'G5.


-v_ Customizing to The Specific Context pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgsfd'VotŒjx¿h'g;'s};ª\u7gdfklg;dfg¿kdfnfu"x'g;Sg]ePtfklgs]xL ljz]iftŒjx¿eg]:yfg,7fpF/;ª\u7gcg';f/s]xLkl/dfh{gul/g'kg]{x'G5.;fy}cGo;ª\u7gsf]Jojxf//cg'ejaf6l;s]sfs'/fx¿klgplQs}dxŒjk"0f{x'g]x'Fbfo;dfklgWofglbgcfjZosx'G5.

-u_ Keeping Things Simple s'g}klgk|0ffnLnfO{;Dk"0f{¿kdfPs}rf]l6jf5f]6f];dodfckgfpFbfhl6ntfpTkGgx'G5.pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgdfjf:tljsnIo/ljZjfl;nf;"rgfsf]k|of]ucfjZosx'G5.Ps}rf]l6 ;a} k|0ffnL ckgfpF+bf jf:tljs / ljZjfl;nf ;"rgfsf] cefjnufot ljljw ;d:ofcfpg;Sg]ePsf]n];fgf/;Lldtoutcomes/indicatorslgwf{/0fu/Lsfo{yfngLug'{pko'Qmx'G5.

-3_ Building Ownership Through Participation pknlAwd"ns Joj:yfkgdfTop-down /Bottom-up b'j}approachsf];dfg¿kdfk|of]ux'g]ePsf]n]sd{rf/L,;xof]uL/cGo;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf]cfjZostf/dxŒjnfO{a'e\mg''kb{5.o;y{ pknlAwd"ns Joj:yfkgsf nflu ;xeflutfd"ns k4ltsf] k|of]u cfjZos x'G5, h;n]:jfldTjsf]efjgfhfu[tu/fpFb5.

-ª_ Making Conscious Organizational Changes ;ª\u7gsf]k|s[ltg}kl/jt{gzLnx'G5.pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgn]klgpknlAwxfl;nug{sfnfluJoj:yfkgsfx/]skIfdfkl/jt{gcfjZos7fGb5.;ª\u7gsf]kl/jt{gn];ª\u7gsf]sfo{sfx/]sIf]qdfk|efjkfb{5,h:tf]/0fgLltsof]hgf,;fwgljlgof]hg/Joj:yfkg,d"Nofª\sg,;'ljwfk|bfg,cg'udg/;"rgfk|jfx .pknlAwd"ns Joj:yfkgdf;ª\u7ghlxn]klg;'b[9of]hgf/;|f]ttyf;fwgsfnflutof//xg'kg]{x'G5.

&= g��kf��fpk�l��"�sJoj:�fkgsf��k|of��u pknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgev{/}dfqljsf;ePsf]Joj:yfkgsf]gjLgz}nLxf].;fj{hlgsIf]q/cGt/f{li6«oljsf;;fem]bf/x¿af6o;sf]cjnDagul/Psf]kfOG5.xfnsflbgdfg]kfndfklgo;sf]k|of]usf]yfngLeg]ePsf]5.vf;u/L;x;|fAbLljsf;nIosf;Gbe{dfg]kfndfpknlAwd"ns Joj:yfkgsf If]qdf ljleGgsfo{x¿ ul/Psf 5g\ . ltgdf Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, Introduction of MTEF and MTBF, Immediate Action Plan, Introduction of Poverty Monitoring and Analysis System, District Poverty Monitoring and Analysis System / Three Year Interim Plan5g\ . ;fy} ah]6df lnOPsfnIosfnflu;DalGwtdGqfnonfO{g}lhDd]jf/dfGg]u/L;fj{hlgsIf]qdfklgpknlAwd"nsJoj:yfkgnfO{cFuflnPsf]5.s]xL7"nfkl/of]hgfx¿dfPerformance Based Incentivesnfu"ul/Psf]5.pRrk|fyldstfdfk/]sfcfof]hgfx¿df;|f]t/;fwgsf]sdLx'gglbg]/sfo{;Dkfbgsfcfwf/dfcltl/Qm/sdpknAwu/fpg]gLltlnOPsf]5.o;cltl/Qm;fj{hlgscy{Joj:yfkg,vl/bk|lqmof,cg'udgtyfd"Nofª\sg /dfgj;+zfwgsf If]qdf;'wf/sfk|of;x¿ePsf5g\ .oL If]qdfyfngLePsf]

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PG88]enkd]G6.Acharya, Madhu Raman (2002), Business of Bureaucracy, Kathmandu: Phulchoki Enterprises.�Khanal, Rameshore Prasad (December 3-4,2009), Result-based Management for Portfolio Performance

and Development Effectiveness, (Power Point).�–––,-2006_,An Introduction to Results Management: Principles, Implications, and Applications,

Asian Development Bank.� – – –, -2008_, Results-Based Programming, Management and Monitoring Guiding Principles,

Results-Based Management (RBM) Guiding Principles, Paris: UNESCO.�

PRASHASAN The Nepalese Journal of Public Administration��

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Training Needs Assessment inNepal Administration Service

Ram Prasad Sapkota∗

“Give man a fish, and you have given him meal. Teach man to fish, and you have given him livelihood”. (An ancient Chinese proverb)

1 Background Nepal is an agricultural developing country, in which about 80 percent economicactivitiesdependonagriculture.Duetothetraditionalandseasonalagriculture,theproductivityofagricultureisverylowwhichindicatesloweconomicgrowthandlowper-capitaincomeofthecountry. The private investment is not sufficient to uplift the economic activities. Therefore, only theGovernmentistryingitsbesttodevelopthecountry. All the state bodies play a crucial role for the functioning of the country and amongthemtheexecutivebodyistheimplementationbodyofthecountry.Soitsroleisveryimportantfor thedevelopmentof the country. ThePrimeMinister is theExecutiveheadof the country.Executivepowersareusedby theGovernmentalorganizations, like civil service, army,police,publiccorporationsetc.Thepolice,army,corporationsaremanagedbytherelatedministriesandalltheministriesarehandledbythecivilservants.Sothecivilservicesectoristhemainexecutivebodyofthegovernment.AlltheGovernmentpoliciesandprogrammesarefunctioningthroughthecivilservice;thus,thesuccessfulfunctioningoftheGovernmentdependsontheperformanceofthecivilservice. Theworldischangingfastandbecomingmoredynamic.Thedemandsandnecessitiesof the citizens are also changing to meet the world’s changes. The change is reflected on the role of the government. It means the role of the government is changing and along with this,themethodsandtechnologyarealsochanging.So,weneedsuchpersonnelthatcanmatchthechangingenvironmentofthesociety.Forthesepurposes,educationisthemaintooltodeveloppersonnel.However,itisanoverallconcept,andittakesalongtime.Intheshortspanoftimeandfor specific purposes, trainings can play a major role. It is crucial to provide additional knowledge, skills and attitudes to the personnel in order to carry out their duties more efficiently. Moreover, trainingshouldequipthepersonnelwiththerequiredattitudestoenablethemtoconstantlyadapttotheever-increasingchangesthatwillcharacterizethemoderncivilservice.Trainingcanplaythelimitedbutcrucialroleinfacilitatingtheprocessofchangeandacquirerelevantknowledgeandskillsthroughlearningopportunities.Individualscanusethelearningopportunityfromtrainingfor personal change like dynamic process, strengths and weaknesses etc., whereas groups canlearnabouthowtofunctionasaneffectiveteambuilder.Bothindividualandgroupcanacquireappropriatevaluesandattitudeandcanchangetheworkculture.

*��Section Officer, Ministry of General Administration.


However,traininghasbeenrecognizedasanimportanttoolforpersonneldevelopment.It should have a job-specific focus, aimed at filling gaps in knowledge and skill that would help thecivilservantstoperformbetter,andbeinvolvedindevelopmentwork.Itisanongoingactivityanditisimportanttoanalyzetheevidence,andassessthestrengthsandweaknessesofindividual,groupandorganization,andprovideideastoimproveit.Inthisway,wecankeeponupdatingthecurrentmanpowerofcivilservicetoachievethecurrentchallengesbeingfacedbythenation. NASisthemostimportantserviceamongthe10servicesincivilservicesystembecausemost of the major sectors like general administration, accounts and revenue groups are covered by thisservice.Accordingtothecivilservicerulesandregulations,candidatesfromanyeducationalfaculty can join this service. So, we need to make them more homogenous through training. Civil service is merit based; it supposes to attract cream graduates. But the presentscenarioofNepalinthiscontextisnotencouraging.Itdoesnotseemtoattractreallycompetentpeople.Therefore,thecompetencyofpersonnelisquestionmarked.Itneedstobeimproved.Atthis juncture, training is one of the major instruments to improve knowledge and skills of civil servantsinashorttime,anditisalsonecessarytochangetheirattitudesinpositivemannertoincreasetheircompetencyforthedevelopmentofthecountry,thepresentstudyisconcernedinthisregard There are many training institutions in the government sectors, and various typesof coursesare conductedby them.Such training institutionshaveusuallyaveryhighcost fortrainingprogramsbuttheperformanceofthecivilservantsaftertheyobtainsuchtrainingsisnotsatisfactory; majority of the people are not satisfied and they have low trust on it (CDPA, 2007 aspresentinworkshop).Thus,questionslike:whatisthemaincausefortheseactions?Whoisresponsibleandhowcanitbeimprovedetc.?arealwaysraisedHence,thisstudyisconcernedwiththeseissuestoo.2 Methodology Descriptiveresearchdesignhasbeenadoptedinthestudyinwhichthecollectedrelevantinformation has been described systematically. During description, discussions have also beenmade in a few places. Both primary and secondary data are used to fulfill the objectives. The primary data are collected from the field survey using questionnaire and interview schedules. The structuredquestionnaireisappliedtotherespondentsofthesecondclassandthirdclassgazettedofficers and the interview schedule is used for the manager level (special and first class officers). Thesecondarydataarecollectedorobtainedfromrelatedpublishedandunpublishedliteraturesuch as books, articles, researches and from ministries and departments or through internetbrowsingetc NASislargeandvagueinitselfsoitisnotpossibletocoveralltheareastoexamineinthis short time; that’s why we have limited our population and fixed it only to the personnel who areworkinginthecentrallevel.Itisnotpossibletoinvestigatethetypesofskills.Thereforethisstudy covers two levels of government officers; as for employees it covers the second and third class officers and as for managers it incorporates first and special class officers. In order to collect information, purposive sampling procedure has been used. The total sample numbers for thisstudy are 61 officers of NAS.

3 Conceptual and Theoretical Aspects of Training Training provides knowledge, skills and positive attitude in a short time. Training mayTrainingprovidesknowledge,skillsandpositiveattitudeinashorttime.Trainingmaynotexistinisolation;itisapartofhumandevelopment,thereareseveralrelationshipsbetweentrainingandpersonneldevelopmentcomponents.


3.1 Personnel Development and Training Human resource refers to important resource of any organization (Agrawal, 2007). Human resource development concerns with increasing the competencies through knowledge, skills,attitudesandexperiencesof thepersonnel inorganizations.Theachievementoforganizationalgoalsdependsontheeffortsandperformancesofthepeopleworkinginorganizations.Betterpeopleachieve better result. Therefore, it is an integral part of every manager’s job in organizations. Personneldevelopmentisanopensystem;itoperateswithintheenvironmentandconsistsofinput-processing–output–feedbackcomponents.

Agrawal (2007) has explained the input component saying that personnel have energies and competencies to perform their duties. Personnel plan specifies its goals and targets, it predeterminesfuturerequirements.Itshowsabouthowmanypersonnelwillbedevelopedandwhenandwheretheywillbedeveloped.Personnelinformationisadatabasedevicefortrackinginformation about personnel and a job which is based on skills inventory of personnel of the organization.Performanceevaluationsystematicallydescribestheneedstorectifyperformancedeficiencies in employees. As processing components, education develops overall potential of everypersonneltohandlefutureresponsibilitiesandtrainingenhancesskills fordoingcurrentduties.Theoutputcomponentincreasesthecompetenciesofemployeesintermsofknowledge,skills,attitudes,experiencesandpotentialsofgrowths.Effectiveutilizationgivestheresultintermsofmoreproductivity.Qualityisaperceptionofexcellenceandthesystemimprovesthequalityofpersonnel.Feedbackmechanismsprovideinformationtoredesigninputsandprocessingthatcanminimizetheerrorsandmaximizetheperformances.Environmentscanbeinternalandexternal;internalenvironment referswithin theorganizationand it consistsofgoals,policies, structure,personnel,rewardsystemetc.,whereas,externalenvironmentrefersoutsidetheorganization;itshowsthepolitical,legal,economics,socio-culturalandtechnologicalfactorsoftheoverallcountry;which are not possible to control by this system. Thus, the system is a unified whole composed of interacting and interrelated part of personnel development process and training is the one major componentofthisprocess.


3.2. Education and Training AccordingtoGovindaRamAgrawal,inhisbook‘Dynamics of Human Resource Management in Nepal’, 2002, education and training provide knowledge, skills and positive attitude; knowledge and skills are broadly defined as including ideas and attitude which are related with behavior and effects to the moral and motivation of every person. Knowledge and skills are one of thefundamental capabilities that a personnel needs to make sense of own self. Both enable tocompare,analyze,communicateandassesstheself,natureandfellowhumanbeings.Theyalsoenabletoestablishlinkagesbetweenthepast,presentandfuture,betweenthepublicandprivateandbetweentheselfandtheworld.Theyalsocanhelponetore-learn,reassessandreactandtochangeoneselfandone’sworld.Inmodernsocieties,formaleducationandtraininghaveemergedas theprimestructures for the transmissionofknowledgeandskills.Therearemanyagencieswhichimpartknowledgeandskills,forexample,thefamily,religion,massmediaetc.Theworkplacealsocanplayacrucialroleforlearningprocess.Everymovement,wehavebeentrainingothersandwearealsobeingtrainedbyothers.Organizationsarelearningsystemsandtrainingisanecessarycomponentinorganizationallearningprocess.Basically,thepurposeoftrainingistoreduce the gap between job requirements and present competence of personnel to increase their efficiency and effectiveness on the job.

3.3 Process of Training According to Manoj Bhattarai, in ‘Human Resource Management’ 2003, the training process consistsofthefollowingsteps:Determinetrainingneeds: Training needs can be at the organization level, job level and personnel level.Itshouldbeproperlydetermined.Trainingneedatthepersonnellevelisthegapbetweenskills needed for doing a job and the present skill level of the personnel.Specify training objectives: Training objectives are desired outcomes of training. They should be specific, measurable in terms of time-bound outcomes. Determinecurriculum/trainingmethods:-Thecurriculumtobepresentedandmethodstobeused both should be determined. The methods can be on- the- job or off- the -job.Selecttraineesandtrainers: Right kind of trainees and efficient trainers should be selected. Developbudget: - Costing should be done for each training programmes; sufficient budget should beprovided.Italsoaffectsthetrainingduration.Bhattarai (2003) has identified the process of training as described in figure 3.2.

Figure: 2. 2 Process of Training

Source: Bhattarai, 2003 (Modified form)


Thus,trainingprocessconsistsoftheprocessmentionedabove.

3.4. Role of Training in Personnel Development Training is one of the major mechanisms of personnel development. It directly contributes to the organizational development, and it can play a crucial role in personnel effects to theorganization. Normally, training performs the following roles in personnel development (Agrawal, 2007):Learning role: Training is a learning process which improves knowledge, skills and positiveattitudesofthepersonnel.Itdevelopsthepersonnel’scapabilitiesatanindividuallevelandalsoaidscareerplanninganddevelopmentofthepersonnel.Job performance role: Increased skills help to increase the motivation of personnel that leadsto actions for improving the work performance. On the one hand, productivity and quality ofworkwillimprovethecurrentwork,andontheotherhandpersonnelmoral,worksatisfaction,organizationalsafetywillbeincreased.However,accidentswillreducethesethings.Organizational climate role: Training improves overall quality of working environment. Itcontributes to the development of enabling the organizational climate. It helps to opennessand trusts in organizational relationship; promotes teamwork in the work place and reducessupervisory burden of the supervisor. It also encourages open communication and improvespersonnelrelationshipintheorganization.

3.5. System Approach of Training Training is composed of interrelated and interacting parts to achieve personneladministrationgoals. Ithasworkedas inputs,processingandoutput components.The systemapproach views training as a unified whole; however, training is a sub-system of personnel administration.

Input: Personnel plan should match the future personnel demand; personnel training needsassessmentand indicates the typeandnumberof trainingprograms.Curriculumis thecoursedesign of specific training; materials are important for implementation of training programs; and traininginvolvescostsobudgetthatprovidesresourcesfortraining.


Processing: Trainers are specialists who deliver training in their areas of expertise. Trainingmethods are mechanisms for implementing training programmes; they can be either on-the-job, or off-the job.Outputs: The skills of employees increase to perform the present duties. The increase in skillsresults improved job performance by the personnel and they learn and use improved job methods. Increased knowledge and skills and improved methods of work require less supervision andsafety.Feedback mechanism: It provides information about results to redesign training; input andprocessingthatcanminimizetheerrorsandmaximizethelevelofperformance.Internal environment: Training system operates within an internal environment. It providesstrengthsandremovesweaknessesanditiscontrolledbytheorganization.Organizationalgoalsareoveralldesiredoutcomesoftheorganization;policiesprovideguidelinesformakingtraining-relateddecisionsandthestructureisthedesignofrelationshipsandcoordinationmechanismfortrainingsystem.Rewardsystemfortrainingensuresattractionandretentionofqualityintrainees.Otherpersonnelactivitiescanbeacquisition,utilizationandmaintenanceactivitieswhichaffectthetrainingsystem.External environment: Training is affected by the external environment also. These factors arepolitical,institutional,social,culturalandlegalforcesetc.

3.6. Determining Training Needs The basic objective of training is to induce a suitable change in the individual concerned. Training should be given when there is a training need; a training need exists when a workperformance problem is traced as a knowledge or skill deficiency. This represents a gap between the existing capabilities of an employee and the requirements of the job. Training Need = Knowledge Gap + Skill Gap + Attitude Gap, or {(Required knowledge - Present knowledge) + (Required skill - present skill) + (Required Attitude -Present Attitude)}.

Source: Rijal, 2062 (Modified form)

Trainingneedsassessmentisthefoundationprocessofalltypesoftrainingprograms.Itisa systematic analysis of specific training activities required to achieve organizational goals of any organization.

3.7. Level of Training Need Training need is a specific skill that an individual needs to acquire to get the jobs done efficiently and effectively. Proper identification of training needs implies that the performance gapcanbeovercomethroughappropriatetrainingexperience.Trainingneedexistsatthreelevels(Agrawal, 2007). They are:Atorganizationallevel:Thisreferstotheshortcomingswhichappearwithintheorganizationasawhole.Theassessmentofneedatthislevelistodetermineproblemareaswheretrainingisneeded.Training needs at organizational level can be created by projected growth and expansion, mergers, acquisitions, diversification, new ventures etc. It changes in environment, objectives, employee mobilityduetopromotion,structure,technologyandchangesinproductsandproductivity.Attasklevel: The requirements of the job (knowledge, skills and attitudes) are the focus of needs analysis at the task level. It can be created by the job redesign, task relocation, changes in work methods and procedures, upgrading of job functions; for example computerization and networking in office etc.At individual level: This refers to assessing present deficiencies in specific KSA on the part of individual personnel. It identifies abut who needs training, in what area, and how long etc. This


level isvery important forassessingneedsbecause individualemployeesarethetargetsof thetraining.Trainingneedatindividuallevelcanbecreatedbychangeinpersonnelplans,policiesandpractices, change in technology, job description and job specification and skill deficiencies in the job.

3.8. Methods of Training Needs Analysis Training needs should be carefully and systematically determined; it is a basis forformulating training objectives. The environmental analysis, organization's objectives, strategies and structure, job description and job specification, personnel planning, policies and practices and performancestandardsandevaluationarethesourcesofinformationforassessingtrainingneeds(Agrawal, 2007). There are various methods for assessing the training needs; the following are the widelyusedmethods:Managementauditmethod:Itisacomprehensive,systematic,independentandperiodicanalysisof organization to assess training needs. The factors can be environmental assessment andstrategic assessments. Changes in environment focus heavily on the influence of the functions oforganizations,suchfactorscanbepolitical,legal,economic,technological,socialandcultural.Organizational objectives may change due to goal succession or goal displacement. Structure may alsochange;structuremaychangeduetothechangeinactivitiesoftheorganization.Managementauditshouldbeconductedbyindependentexpertstoassesstrainingneedsattheorganizationallevel.Departmentalanalysisisalsotoassessthetrainingneedsofthedepartment.Managementaudit facilitates training need identification for environmental adaptation but it can be costly and timeconsuming.Task analysis method: A task is an element of job; several tasks make up a job. This method consists of collecting and analyzing task related information. Performance standards are setfor each task; training needs are identified for effective performance of task. Job description is evaluated to list the various tasks to be performed by the personnel. Job specification is evaluated to find out knowledge and skills needed to perform tasks. Performance criteria for each task can be establishedtaskinformationandtrainingneedsaredeterminedforeachemployee’sobservation.Questionnaire and interview tools can be used to obtain task-related information from goodperformers. This method identifies task-based training needs. However, it is difficult to set the priorities for training since task priority is difficult to determine.Performanceanalysis method: Training needs can be identified by organizational performance analysis and personnel performance analysis. The difference between desired performancestandards and actual performance is the performance deficiency indicating training needs. Organizationalperformanceanalysis isbasedonrecordsandreports.Thegoalachievement interms of profit and market share, production performance, quality control, sales performance, costs,absenteeismand labor turnover rates,accident rates,grievance reportsetcare indicatorsofoverallperformance.Organizationalperformanceanalysisdeterminesoverallorganizationaltrainingneeds.Personnelperformanceanalysis:Thisanalysisisbasedonobservationofpersonnelperformanceon the current job. Performance deficiencies and problems faced by employees are identified to determinetrainingneeds.Personnelperformanceappraisalreviews,careerplanningdiscussions,interviewsandperformancetestsaretoolswhichbeusedforassessingpersonnelperformance.Performance analysis method links training needs to job performance. However, it is time consumingandrequiresskilledpeople toanalyzeperformance,andmanagementcommitmentisalsorequired.Personnelperformanceanalysisiswidelyusedfordeterminingtrainingneedsoftheindividual.Supervisoryrecommendationsmethod:Thesupervisorevaluatesandguidesthepersonnelonadailybasis.Heisknowledgeableaboutrealitiesofworksituation,performancestandardsforthe


job, knowledge and skills of the employees, knowledge and skills required for the job. Supervisors canidentifythegapsinknowledgeandskillsandrecommendneededtrainingforthepersonnel.Thismethodisalsopopularforassessingtrainingneeds.Trainingneedssurveymethod:Surveymethodconsistsofdirectquestioningorinterviewingtogatheropinionsabouttrainingneeds.Thesurveycanbeoftwotypes;individualandgroup.Inindividualsurvey,eachpersonnelisaskedtogiveopiniononhis/hertrainingneedstoperformthe job effectively. Personnel attitude survey can also be completed. In group survey, a group of presentpersonnel,formerpersonnelorsupervisorsisaskedtogiveopinionontrainingneedstoperform the job effectively. The result of survey becomes training needs.

4 Training Practices in Civil Service Intheprevioustopicwesawthattheperformanceofthegovernmentmainlydependsonthe civil service officers, especially on NAS. However, the performance of the overall civil service and NAS as well is not satisfactory (CDPA, 2007). In this study we want to see what extent training mightimprovetheperformanceofthecivilservice.Abouttwentydifferenttraininginstitutionshave been functioning in Nepal Civil Service, (Agrawal, 2007), and of them the following eight institutionsarerelatedtoNAS:

Name of the Training Institutions Concerned MinistryNepalAdministrativeStaffCollege.................................. MinistryofGeneralAdministrationPersonnelTrainingAcademy............................................. MinistryofGeneralAdministrationLocalDevelopmentTrainingAcademy............................ MinistryofLocalDevelopmentRevenueAdministrationTrainingCentre........................ MinistryofFinanceHotelManagementandTourismTrainingAcademy.... MinistryofTourismPostalTrainingCentre......................................................... MinistryofCommunicationLandManagementTrainingCentre.................................. MinistryofLandReformandManagementCooperativeTrainingCentre.............................................. MinistryofAgricultureandCooperative

The following types of trainings are existing in NAS, (Tiwari, 20�7):The following types of trainings are existing in NAS, (Tiwari, 20�7):

Pre-serviceentrytraining:Previously,suchtypesoftrainingwereconductedonlyinthedevelopedcountries;now it isbecomingpopular in thedevelopingcountriesalso.For thepreparationofcivilserviceexamination,itisconductedbyvariousprivateorganizations.Butitiscostlybecauseprivate organizations want to get more profits. The government is only providing such types of training especially for the female, Janajati, Madheshi, disabled candidates. Inductiontraining:Afterrecruitmentandbeforestartingduties,itisconductedbytheemployer.Especially, this training has been conducted for Section Officers by Nepal Administrative Staff College and it has been conducted since 202� B.S. in Administration Service, General Administration


Group.Themainpurpose of this training is to provide basic knowledge of objectives, policies, programmes,andworkmethodsofthegovernmentalorganizations.Refreshertraining:Themainpurposeofthistrainingistoadoptthenewtechnologyandchangingenvironment. It has been conducted since 2029 B.S. in Administrative Service. However, there is noregularityinthistraininganditisnotsoeffectivelyadopted.Special or certain class training: This training is conducted for certain classes. For example:sometimes only for Chef District Officers (C.D.O.), sometimes only for Local Development Officers (L. D. O.), sometimes only for Customs Officers etc.Seminarsandworkshops: Seminars and workshops are useful to find out the practical solution to a particular problem with the help of the group involved. It was started since 2019 B.S. and has beenconductedforhighlevelpersonnel.

4.1. Historical Background of Training in Nepal Administration Service According to the project report of training policy improvement, submitted by Bal Govinda Bista, 206�, the process of training in civil service started in 2013 B.S. Then institute of Public Administration was established in 2014 B.S. That institute was collaborated with Public Administration Board in the fiscal year 2017/18, and after one year, the board was merged with the Department of Public Administration. That department used to conduct manual trainingsliketyping,recordmanagementetc. fornon-gazettedstaff,andconductedservicetrainingsforgazetted officers. The United Nations provided technical support for training programmes, and the US government provided trainers, equipments and technical help in the fiscal year 2019/20 B.S. Accordingly, a new system was introduced, in the fiscal year 2021/22 B.S. i.e. after the recommendationofpublicservicecommission,thatthecandidatehadtocompleteadministrativetrainingbeforeappointment;butthatprogrammecouldnotgetcontinuation.CentralDepartmentof Training was established in the fiscal year 2022/23 B.S. Since then all the training programs conducted by the Department of Public Administration were shifted to this new department.In the fiscal year 2024/2�, the Department of Public Administration was constitutedunder thePrimeMinisterfortheadministrationofcivilservice,administrativereformandtraining.Besides,the administration and management trainings (sector wise training) like forest, agriculture, rural development, health, survey, postal etc. were conducted till the second Five year Plan (2022-27). Thosetrainingprogramsfocusedonthedevelopmentofthetargetedgroups. Centre for Economic Development and Administration (CEDA) was established in 2027 B.S. It was CEDA that started the one year diploma program in public administration and trainingforgazettedsecondclasscivilservants,anditmanagedtocarryoutthestudyofpublicadministration and training until the establishment of Public Administration Campus in 2033 B.S. After the Account Reform Project was established in 2032 B.S. separate training for account personnel was started by the Office of the Controller of Accounts. Then Revenue Administration Training Centre was established in 2037 B.S. Department of Public Administration was converted into the Ministry of General Administration in 2038 B.S. and the training was continued by that ministry, but it was stopped when Nepal Administrative Staff College was established in 2039 B.S. The Sixth Five-year Plan (2037-42) was famous for the institutional development for training: Revenue Training Centre, 2037, Law Service Training Centre, 2038 and Nepal Administrative Staff College, 2039 were established during this period. Accordingly, the Public Service Commission also started thirty day training for gazetted officers but it could not be continued. For the purpose of transparency and effective training, the Civil Personnel Policy 2046 was applied. After reconstructing that policy, the Civil Service National Training Policy, 20�8 has been adopted. But theapplicationsideofthispolicywaspoorandnoteffective.Therefore,aresearchteamsubmittedits study report to the Ministry of General Administration in 206� B.S. suggesting the ways of effectivepolicymanagementandinstitutionalmanagementoftraining.


4.2. Basis for Nomination for Study and Training Forthepurposeofstudyandtraining,theconcernedministryshallnominateparticipantsfrom among the employees of the ministry and other offices under the ministry and from within the services and groups / sub-groups using the following criteria (Civil Service Act, 2049):- Subject and areas of study and training must be useful and necessary to the service,- Preferential basis: the preference is determined by the marks/percentage obtained by

the employees in educational degrees, seniority, job experience in remote geographical regionsandperformanceevaluation,

- Completionofthreeyearsofpermanentservice,- The employee should not be over forty-five years of age except in case where the study

shouldleadtotheacquisitionofbachelors,mastersoranyotheracademicdegrees.- Priority,whilenominatingcandidates for foreignstudyandtraining,shallbegivento

thoseemployeeswhohaveneverbeenabletogetsuchopportunities.

5. Presentation and Analysis of questionnaire ForthestudyoftrainingneedsassessmentofNAS,differenttypesofdataarecollectedthrough structured questionnaire. The data are classified into different sections and clusters whichareanalyzedandinterpretedherebythehelpofdifferenttables.

5.1. Personal information For the research purpose, all questionnaire respondents were gazetted officers of two categories. Special and first class officers refer to manager level and second and third class officers standforemployeelevel,although,theemployeelevelpersonnelarealsodecisionmakersinthedistrict level offices and are influential for decision making in the central level offices. Thus, all levelshaveimportantrolesinadministrationspheresofNAS.Thequestionnairesweresenttoabout 2�0 personnel, but only 61 respondents are on board. The personal information mentioned in questionnaire is given in the table No �.1

Table 5.1 Personal Information

DesignationSpecial Class

Gazetted First

Gazatted Second

GazettedThird

Total Respondents

Number and percentage of Respondents 05 (8%) 10 (16%) 13 (22%) 33 (54%) 61 (100%)

Age range Below 4o 40 - 45 46 - 50 51 - 55 55+61 (100%)Number and percentage of

Respondents27 (44%) 24 (39%) 05 (8%) 04 (7%) 01 (2%)

Sex Male Female61(100%)

Number and percentage of Respondents 58 (95%) 03 (5%)

Service Period Below 15 15-20 21-25 26-30 31+ 61 (100%)Number and percentage of Respondents 29 (48%) 11 (18%) 17 (28%) 04 (7%) 00 (0%)

Experience.in.Present.Post Below 1 01-03 04-06 07-09 10+ 61 (100%)Number and percentage of

Respondents07 (12%) 09 (15%) 19 (31%) 09 (15%) 17 (28%)

Level of Education Below Bachelors Bachelors. Masters. Ph.� D.� 61 (100%)Number and percentage of Respondents 00 (0%) 01 (2%) 58 (95%) 02 (3%)

Source: Field Survey, 2009


From the above table, it is found out that about �4 percent respondents are third class officers. Due to its large share in Nepalese bureaucracy in number, there is large number of respondents of third class officers. Accordingly, about 22 percent, 16 percent, and 8 percent are second, first and special class officers respectively. There is smaller percentage of special class officers due to their availability and extreme business in work. More than 9� percent respondents are male and only � percent are female. This is just because there is only 12 percentage of female employees in the whole civil service. About 84 percent respondents are below the age of 4� years and only about 16 percent are above 4� years. The existing age factor in Nepalese civil service also revealsthatphysicallystrongpersonnelprevailincivilserviceandtheycanworkeveninremoteplaces,wheneverneeded. So far as qualification is concerned, most of the respondents are found having higher academic qualifications, about 98 percent officers hold Master’s Degree and about 3 percent respondents have Ph.D. as well. Regarding experiences in job, about 74 percent respondents have more than four years service experience, and only about 26 percent respondents have less thanfouryearsexperience inthepresentpost.Theabovementioneddatareveal that thereareexperienced and qualified personnel in NAS. A strong question persists “In spite of the above mentioned strength, why there is a tremendous lacking and deficiency in the performance of the wholeCivilServicesector?”

5.2. Assessment of the present and expected level of education Theresearcherobservedthedataofthepresentandexpectedlevelofeducationoftheemployees and examined the relevance of the employee’s education with present job to assess thepresentscenarioofNAS.Wehaveanalyzedwhethertheeducationlevelistheprimefactorresponsiblefortheprevailingperformanceornot.Education level of employees: - Education is the essential component of human resourcedevelopment. For the identification of present education level of employees, the respondents were askedabouttheireducationlevel,andthemanagerswereaskedabouttheeducationleveloftheirsubordinates.Accordingly,themanagersandemployeeswereaskedaboutwhatwastherequiredlevelofeducationoftheemployeesforNAS.Boththeexistinganddesiredlevelsofeducationaregiven in the table No. �.2

Table: 5.2 Education Levels of Employees

Present levelBelow

Bachelor’sBachelor’s

DegreeMaster’s Degree

Ph. D.Total

RespondentsNumber and percentage of Respondents

Employee Level 00 (0%) 01 (2%) 43 (94%) 02 (4%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 00 (0%) 01 (7%) 14 (93%) 00 (0%) 15 (100%)

Total 00 (0%) 02 (3%) 57 (94%) 02 (3%) 61 (100%)Desire level

Number and percentage of Respondents

Employee Level 00 (0%) 35 (76%) 10 (22%) 01 (2%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 00 (0%) 11 (73%) 04 (27%) 00 (0%) 15 (100%)

Total 00 (0%) 46 (75%) 14 (23%) 01 (2%) 61 (100%) Source: Field Survey, 2009

It is clearly shown in table No. �.2 that most of the employees have higher academic qualifications, about 97 percent officers have Master’s Degree and about 3 percent officers have Ph.D. also. Majority or about 7� percent respondents view that desired level of performance is Bachelor’s degree and minority or only about 23 percent respondents urge for Master’s Degree. Thetableshowsthatmostoftheemployeesofadministrationservicearehavinghighereducation.So,byanalyzingtheabovementionedfacts,thereisnogapatallbetweendesiredandrequiredlevelofeducationintheService.


Relevance of academic qualification to the job: - Every job requires relevance of academic qualification. The study of public administration is the multidisciplinary field of study. The study andtrainingofpublicadministrationisonlyinKathmanduanditisonlyinMaster’slevel.Weasked the respondents for the relevance of employees’ education to their job and the desired level of relevance to the job. Both present and desired level of relevance of employee’s education to their job is given in the table No. �.3

Table: 5.3 Relevancy of Academic Qualification to the Job

Present SituationHighly

relevantGeneral relation

Norelation

Total Respondents


Employee Level 07 (15%) 36 (78%) 03 (7%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 02 (13%) 11 (74%) 02 (13) 15 (100%)

Total 09 (9%) 47 (77%) 05 (8%) 61 (100%)Expected Situation


Employee Level 11 (24%) 34 (74%) 01 (2%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 05 (33%) 09 (60%) 01 (7%) 15 (100%)

Total 16 (26%) 43 (43%) 02 (3%) 61 (100%) Source: Field Survey, 2009

The table No. �.3 reveals that most of the employees’ (47 out of 61) education is generally relevant with their present jobs. Majority or about 70 percent respondents view that the general relation of academic qualification is sufficient for their present job in Administration Service. It means that the academic qualification acquired by the employees is not a problem for performing their job in Administration Service.

5.3. Assessment of the Present and Expected Level of Training This section observes the number of trainings in the last five years and the relevance of acquired trainings with present job. The prime questions like “Who demands for training? What arethecausesofinterestintraining?Whoapproachestraining?Whoselectstrainingmodules?Who selects the trainers?” and the feedback mechanism of delivered trainings etc. have beendiscussedbelow.Numbers of trainings in the last five years: Training should be scheduled for each and everychanging nature of work. Sometimes it is necessary for refreshment and energizer. So, therespondents were asked about the acquired number of training by employees in the last five years and expected times of training within five years. Based on the observation of the respondents, acquiredanddesiretimesoftrainingareshowninthetablebelow.

Table: 5.4 Numbers of Trainings in the Last Five Years

Present Situation about TrainingsMore than

threeLess than

threeNo training

at allTotal



Total 12 (71%) 42 (69%) 07 (15%) 61 (100%)Expected Situation about trainings


Employee level 05 (11%) 40 (67%) 01 (2%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 03 (20%) 12 (80%) 00 (0%) 15 (100%)



On the one hand, the Table No.�.4 shows that about 6� percent employees said that, on the average, they did have less than three trainings in the last five years and 80 percent managers also confirmed the same remark. On the other hand, about 87 percent employees expect more than three trainings within five years and 80 percent managers also expected the same for their subordinate employees within five years. Thus, it is observed from the analysis that there is a clear gapbetweenacquiredandrequirednumberoftrainingsforemployees,andobviouslyitneedsanincrementinthenumberoftrainings.Relevance of acquired training with job: The skills obtained from training can play a major role in performing the job; that’s why, it was asked to the managers and employees about the relevance of employee’s training with their present jobs. They were also asked about the desired level of relevanceofthetrainings.Bothpresentanddesiredlevelsofrelevanceoftheemployees’trainingwith their present job are given in the table No.�.�

Table: 5.5 Relevancy of Acquired Training with Job

Present SituationHighly

RelevantGeneral Relation

NoRelation

Total Respondents



Total 11 (18%) 48 (79%) 02 (3%) 61 (100%)Expected SituationNumber and percentage of Respondents



According to the above mentioned table, it is seen that about 76 percent training acquired by employees is generally relevant with their present job. But about 8� percent employees expect the training should be highly relevant with his present job. This shows that the trainings have only surface relation with present job and there is a gap in relevance. About 87 percent managers' view also supported that there is a general relation between current training and current job. About 73 percent managers show their interest that the trainings should be highly relevant with job. It means that the surface relation of present training will not be sufficient for present job in NAS. Basedonaboveobservation,itisnecessarytoformulatetrainingprogrammeshighlyrelevanttothe present nature of job. Relationship between acquired trainings and present requirement: It is necessary to see therelationshipbetweenacquiredtrainingbyemployeesandrequirementoforganization’snatureofjob. So, to identify the present and expected relationship between acquired training and present requirement, the managers and employees were asked to express their views. The views ofrespondents are given in the table No. �.6

Table: 5.6 Relationships between Acquire Trainings and Present Requirement

Present SituationStrongly Related

Slightly Related

No Relation at all

Total Respondents



Total 11 (18%) 47 (77%) 03 (5%) 61 (100%)Expected SituationNumber and percentage of Respondents




The table No. �.6 shows that about 72 percent employees have expressed that the acquired trainings are slightly related with their present requirements and about 93 percent managers have expressedthesameview.About80percentemployeesexpectthatthetrainingshouldbestronglyrelated with their present requirement; and about 87 percent managers’ view also supported the employees’ view. The views expressed here have a clear notification that there is a gap between acquiredtrainingandpresentrequirement.

5.4. Assessment of the Present and Expected Level of Performance In this section, it is observed how long time it takes to complete a specific job, behaviorIn this section, it is observed how long time it takes to complete a specific job, behavior ofemployeedealingwithclientandthewayofpresentationinmemo.DuetoserviceorientationoftheAdministrationService,itishighlyimportanttoknowhowlongittakesanemployeetocomplete the job and how he behaves.Time taken to complete a specific job:Performanceoforganizationdependsonthetimetakenbythe employee to complete a specific job. To identify the present and expected time-duration of employees to complete their specific and designated regular jobs, the employees and managers wereaskedquestions.Thedatacollectedinthestudyareasaregivenbelow.

Table: 5.7 Time taken to complete one specific job

Present Situation A few hour One day One weekMore than

a weekTotal

Respondents


Employee Level 08 (17%) 15 (33%) 21 (46%) 02 (4%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 01 (7%) 03 (20%) 11 (73%) 00 (0%) 15 (100%)

Total 09 (15%) 18 (20%) 32 (52%) 02 (3%) 61 (100%)

Desire Situation


Employee Level 13 (28%) 31 (67%) 02 (5%) 00 (0%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 12 (80%) 03 (20%) 00 (0%) 00 (0%) 15 (100%)


It is shown in table No. �.7 that about 46 percent employees take one week time to complete a specific and designated regular job; And about 73 percent manager’s view also supported the employees’ view. But about 67 percent employees expect one day to complete their job and 80 percentmanagersexpect theirsubordinatestaff totakeonlyafewhourstocompletetheironespecific task. The actual time duration and the expected time duration are found to be miss-matching. There is a clear gap between present and expected time taken by the employees tocomplete their one specific and designated regular job. This obviously shows that they need some sortofre-boost-ment.Employees’behaviorwithclient:-Behaviorofemployeescanplayimportantroleinincreasingtrust and belief of any organization. It is difficult to trace out the behavior of those, who generally feel that they are right. So, to identify the employees’ behavior is rather difficult. Direct questions wereasked to themanagersabouthow they rated their subordinates’behaviordealingwithclients. And an indirect question is asked to the employees about how they perceive clients’behaviororhowtheyratethebehavioroftheclients.Thedatacollectedinthestudyareasaregivenbelow.


Table: 5.8 Behavior of employees dealing with clients

Present SituationAlways helpful

Satisfactory TediousTotal



Total 03 (5%) 49 ( 80%) 09 (15%) 61 (100%)Expected Situation




The table No.�.8 shows that about 33 percent managers rate for tedious behavior and about66percentrateforsatisfactorybehavioroftheirsubordinatesdealingwithclients.Inlinewith this, about 73 percent employees expect that their subordinate colleagues should always behave in helpful manner. About 8� percent employees rate for satisfactory behavior and about 9 percent rate tedious behavior towards their clients. To counter the behavior, about 72 percent employeesexpect that their subordinatesmustbehavewith theclients inhelpfulmanner. It isa fact that if employees want helpful behaviors from the clients, the employees must also behelpfultotheclients.ThisproverbclearlyrevealsthatthesituationdoesnotprevailinNepaleseAdministration.Thusthereisagapbetweenpresentandexpectedbehaviorofemployeesdealingwiththeclients.Wayofpresentationininternalmemo: The way of presentation in internal memo can play a major roleindecisionmakingprocess.Soitwasaskedtothemanagerswhatthepresentationinthememo(Tippani) submitted to them by their subordinates was usually like. Similarly, the subordinates werealsoaskedabouttheirboss’sresponsetotheTippaniormemothattheysubmittedtohim.The results are given in Table No. �.9

Table: 5.9. The way of presentation in internal memo

Existing Style

Tries to sort out the things positively by

not violating the existing rules

Tries to sort out the things positively even

by violating existing rules

Treats the case in

negative way

Strictly stick to the rules and

regulations

Total Respondents

Number and percentage.of.Respondents

Employee Level 10 (22%) 03 (7%) 00 (0%) 33 (71%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 03 (20%) 00 (0%) 00 (0%) 12 (80%) 15 (100%)

Total 13 (21%) 03 (7%) 00 (0%) 45 (74%) 61 (100%)Expected StyleNumber and percentage.of.Respondents

Employee Level 39 (85%) 02 (4%) 00 (0%) 05 (11%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 15 (100%) 00 (0%) 00 (0%) 00 (0%) 15 (100%)


Above mentioned table No. �.9 shows that 80 percent managers find that their subordinates are strict in following rules and regulations; but 20 percent managers expect that their subordinates should try to sort out the things positively by not violating the existing rules. About 72 percent employeesfeelthattheirmanager’sdecisionsaremoretraditionalandthemanagersarestricton


rules and regulations. About 8� percent employees also expect that the supervisors should try tosortoutthethingspositivelybynotviolatingtheexistingrules.Thedifferenceinperceptionbetween supervisors and employees shows the gap between present and expected way ofpresentationandresponseinmemoindecisionmakingprocess.

5.5. Existing Situation of Training Here,wehaveexplainedthedemandfortraining,causesofinterestfortraining,approachof training, concern agencies of selecting training modules, responsible agencies for selectingtrainersandfeedbackmechanismofdeliveredtrainings.Demandfortraining: - Demands for trainings are direct in relation with the identification of the trainingneeds.Inlinewiththis,inordertoexaminethepracticeandexpectationofdemandfortraining,thequestionswereaskedtobothtypesofrespondents.TheirviewsaregivenintableNo.�.10

Table: 5.10. Demand of Training

Present SituationEmployee Demand

for TrainingSupervisors’ Encourage

for TrainingTotal


Employee Level 40 (87%) 06 (13%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 12 (80%) 03 (20%) 15 (100%)

Total 52 (85%) 09 (15%) 61 (100%)Desire situation



Total 27 (44%) 34 (56%) 61 (100%) Source: Field Survey, 2009

According to the table mentioned above, about 8� percent respondents viewed that employees themselves demand for training. Only about 1� percent viewed that their supervisors encouraged employees for training. But about �6 percent respondents expect that employees themselves should demand for training and about 44 percent respondents expect that the supervisorsshoulddemandforthetrainings.Itindicatesthatonlyemployeesaredemandingfortrainingfortheircareerdevelopment.Thesupervisorsneedtorealizetheneedofskillsoftheirfellowworkersandtheyalsoshouldencouragetotheemployeesfortraining.Causeofinterestintraining: - There are many causes of interest in trainings. It is necessary to find outwhyemployeesareinterestedintrainings.Toassessthecausesofinterestfortrainings,therespondentswereaskedaboutwhytheemployeesareinterestedintrainings.Respondents’viewsare given in table No. �.11.

Table: 5.11 Cause of interest in training

Present SituationCareer Devt.

NeedSkill Need

Demonstration Effect

For Relaxation

Total Respondents


Employee Level 35 (76%) 10 (22%) 00 (0%) 01 (2%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 11 (74%) 02 (13%) 02 (13%) 00 (0%) 10 (100%)

Total 46 (75%) 12 (20%) 02 (3%) 01 (2%) 61 (100%)Desire SituationNumber and percentage.of.Respondents

Employee Level 19 (41%) 27 (59%) 00 (0%) 00 (0%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 02 (13%) 13 (87%) 00 (0%) 00 (0%) 15 (100%)



Above mentioned table No. �.11 shows that about 73 percent managers and about 76 percentemployeesviewedthatemployeesareinterestedintrainingsfortheircareerdevelopment.But about 87 percent managers and about �9 percent employees opine that it should be for skill-basedneed.Itisobservedthatthereisanobviousgapbetweenpresentandexpectedcausesofinterestintraining.Approachfortraining:-Toidentifythepracticingandexpectingofapproachfortraining,boththerespondents were asked questions. Their views are given in table No. �.12

Table: 5.12 Approach for Training

Present SituationEmployee’s Org.

Approach the Training Institute

Training Institute Approach Employees’

Organization

Total Respondents


Employee level 05 (11%) 41 89%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level O4 (27%) 11 (73%) 15 (100%)

Total 09 (15%) 52 (85%) 61 (100%)Desired situation


Employee level 37 (80%) 09 (20%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 11 (73%) 04 (27%) 15 (100%)


According to the above mentioned table, about 87 percent respondents expressed that training institutes are approaching to the employees’ organizations and only about 13 percent respondentssaidthattheemployees’organizationsapproachtothetraininginstitutes.Butabout79 percent respondents viewed that the employees’ organizations should approach to the training institutes.Inspiteofemployees’organizationsapproachtothetraininginstitution,itisfoundvice-versa.Thisshowsthatthereisvastgapbetweenpracticingandexpectingapproachesoftraining.Institutions (training or employee’s) involved in selecting training modules:Thetrainingmodulesshould be appropriate to the nature of job and it has to be examined from the point of view of practiceandexpectationoftheinstitutionandemployeeaswell.Questionnaireselectionpatternandselectionmoduleswereaskedthroughthequestionnairetothebothlevelsofrespondents.Their responses are given below in table No. �.13

Table: 5.13 Institutions (training or employee’s) involved in selecting training modules

Present SituationTraining Institute

Employees’ Organizations

Total Respondents



Total 53 (87%) 08 (13%) 61 (100%)Desired Situation




According to the above mentioned table, about 87 percent respondents viewed that the 'training institutes select training modules' and only about 13 percent respondents viewed that the 'employee’s organization selects training modules'. But about 84 percent respondents expect that


employee’sorganizationshouldselectthetrainingmodules.Theyhavetheviewthatthetraininginstitutionsshouldonlyconducttrainingsaspertheneedoftheinstitutions.Thisshowsthatthereisavastgapbetweenpracticingandexpectingsituationinselectingthetrainingmodules.The involvement of intuitions in selecting trainers: - Every trainer should have to possess theknowledge about trainee’s job. To identify the practicing situation and expecting selection of trainersfortraining,questionsareaskedtobothrespondents.TheirviewsaregivenintableNo.�.14

Table: 5.14 Institution of selecting trainers

Present SituationEmployees’

OrganizationTraining Institute

TraineeTotal



Total 06 (10%) 55 (90%) 00 (0%) 61 (100%)Expected situation


Employee Level 35 (76%) 10 (22%) 01 (2%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 11 (73%) 03 (20%) 01(7%) 15 (100%)


According to the above mentioned table, about 90 percent respondents responded that the traininginstitutesselecttrainers,andonlyabout10percentsaidthattheemployees’organizationselects trainers. But about 7� percent respondents expect that employees’ organizations should select the trainers. This shows that there is gap between practicing and expecting selection oftrainers.Feedbackmechanismofdeliveredtrainings:-Evaluationofpasttrainingprogrammesisnecessaryforfurthertrainingprogrammesandfeedbackmechanismplaysacrucialrolefortheevaluationsystem.Themanagersandemployeeswereaskedabout themechanismofdeliveredtrainings,for thepurposeof feedbackmechanism.Andtheywerealsoaskedabout thedesiredwayandleveloffeedbackmechanism.Bothpracticinganddesiredleveloffeedbackmechanismoftrainingprogrammes are given in the table No. �.1�

Table: 5.15 Feedback Mechanisms of Delivered Trainings

Present SituationRegular

FeedbackOccasional feedback

No FeedbackTotal

Respondents

No.� of RespondentsEmployee Level 02 (4%) 07 (15%) 37 (81%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 00 (0%) 04 (27%) 11 (73%) 15 (100%)

Total 02 (3%) 11 (18%) 48 (79%) 61 (100%)Expected situation

No.� of RespondentsEmployee Level 39 (85%) 06 (13%) 01 (2%) 46 (100%)Manager.Level 11 (73%) 03 (20%) 01 (7%) 15 (100%)


Above mentioned table No. �.1� shows that about 73 percent managers and about 80 percentemployeesviewedthatthereisnofeedbackmechanismintheirorganizations.Butabout73 percent managers and about 8� percent employees expect that there should be feedback mechanism on a regular basis. This clearly shows that there is a significant gap between practicing anddesiredleveloffeedbackmechanismofthedeliveredtrainings.


5.6. The Reasons of Gap Itisobservedinaboveanalysisthattherearevariousgapsbetweenexistingsituationanddesiredlevelsoftrainingprocessesandperformanceofemployees.Theremaybemanycausesforit. To find out the reason for the gap, one open-ended question was asked to the respondents to expresstheirobservation.Thequestionwas:ifthereisagap,whatareitscauses?Accordingtotherespondentsfollowingreasonsarefound.- Trainingisnotconsideredatooltoenhancetheskilloftheemployees.Itshouldbemade

an integral part of the job, need assessment should be done in consultation with the specific organization, module should be finalized by the organization concerned, skills required should be focused to perform required job, behavioral change in trainee staff is equally importantasaskill.

- Thereisnorelationbetweentheperformanceandtrainingneed.Normallyorganizationheadsdonotgiveimportanceintrainingtheirsubordinates.Eventheemployeesseemto be reluctant to obtain trainings. They will be interested only when they will find some monetary benefits in trainings. Therefore, there should be concerted effort to bring training andperformancetogether.

- One of the main reasons of gap is that the officials would like to take interest to get training from foreign countries rather than from Nepalese institutes. Moreover theyexpect handsome amount of allowance along with the training certificate.

- Thegreatestproblemisthat‘rightmaninrightplaceprinciple’isnotproperlyapplied,thereislackofcomprehensivehumanresourceplanningintheNepalesebureaucracyandalso there is no projection of human resource needs and supply plan.

- Inlinewiththeanalysisoftheaboveobservation,itcanbesaidthattherearenoproperhumanresourceplanningandtrainingsystemsastheyshouldbe.

5.7. Requirement of Skills To identify training needs, it is necessary to find out required skills. To examine the lack of currentperformanceskills,focuswasgivenontheconceptual,interpersonalandtechnicalskills.For these purposes, the skill part is broken-down into four/five categories and questions were askedtotheemployeesaswellasmanagersastowhatkindofskilltheirorganizationsaremostlylacking. Their responses are given below in table No. �.16.

Table: 5.16 Requirement of Skill

Conceptual and Practical SkillProblem Solving

Decision Making

Creative Thinking

Assimilating with Surroundings

Total Respondents


Employee Level 17 (37%) 07 (15%) 20 (44%) 02 (4%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 05 (33%) 02 (13%) 07 (47%) 01 (7%) 15 (100%)

Total 22 (36%) 09 (15%) 27 (44%) 03 (5%) 61 (100%)

Interpersonal skillCommu-nication

Team Building

Motivating Staff

Organize & Lead Meeting

Negotiation with Client


Employee Level 19 (41%) 11 (24%) 10 (22%) 01 (2%) 05 (11%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 09 (61%) 02 (13%) 02 (13%) 00 (0%) 02 (13%) 15 (100%)

Total 28 (46%) 13 (21%) 12 (20%) 01 (2%) 07 (11%) 61 (100%)


Technical SkillJob

Analysis

Identify Training

Need

Preparing Manpower Requirement Plan for

Organization

Allocate Human Resource within

OrganizationNumber and percentage.of.Respondents

Employee Level 15 (33%) 21 (46%) 04 (8%) 06 (13%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 04 (26%) 09 (60%) 01 (7%) 01 (7%) 15 (100%)

Total 19 (32%) 30 (49%) 05 (8%) 07 (11%) 61 (100%)


Accordingtotheabovementionedtable,theconceptualandpracticalskillsarebroken-down into three categories. Among these categories, about 44 percent respondents have responded that 'creative thinking' is a prime one. About 36 percent respondents have shown their response on 'problem solving' skills, as they express the view that it is helpful to perform their job. Among the interpersonal skills, about 46 percent respondents have shown the ‘requirements of communication’, about 20 percent responded for ‘motivating staff’ and about 21 percent respondents showed ‘team building skills’. Accordingly, among the technical skills, about 49 percent respondents indicated the requirement of ‘identifying training needs’ and about 31 percent respondents pointed out the requirement of ‘job analysis skill’, as the most important for their organizations. Thisanalysisshowsthatthecreativethinkingandproblemsolvingskills,inconceptualandpracticalskillsareas;communication,teambuildingandmotivatingstaffintheinterpersonalskill; and identifying training needs and job analysis in the technical skill area are found deficient inNAS.

5.8. Implementation of Government Policies Government policy can play a major role to the overall human resource development andcanalsoplayarolefortheimprovementoftrainingprogrammes.Governmentpolicymainlyfocuses on three areas; implementation side of Training Policy-20�8, matching situation of training policy with performance, and practicing situation of identifying training needs. For the abovepurposes,therespondentswereaskedthefollowingthreequestions.- In your view, to what extent has the “Training Policy, 20�8” been implemented in your

organization?

- Are there any practices taking place to identify training needs before making trainingprogrammesandcurriculumsinyourorganization?

- Do you feel that the present Training Policy-20�8, matches with employees’ work performanceandcareerplanning?

TheresponsesofthemanagersandemployeesaregivenbelowintableNo. �.17

Table: 5.17 Implementation of Government policiesIn your view to what extent has the “Training Policy, 2058” been implemented in your organization?

Fully Implemented

Partly Implemented

Not Implemented

Total Respondents


Employee level 01 15 35 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 01 09 05 15 (100%)

Total 02 24 40 61 (100%)


Are there any practices taking place to identify training needs before making training programs and curriculums in your organization?

Yes No


Employee level 02 (4%) 44 (96%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 01 (7%) 14 (93%) 15 (100%)

Total 03 (5%) 58 (95%) 61 (100%)

Do you feel that present training policy, 2058 match with employees work performance and career planning?

Fully MatchingPartly

MatchingNot.Matching


Employee level 02 (4%) 24 (52%) 20 (44%) 46 (100%)

Manager.Level 00 (0%) 05 (33%) 10 (67%) 15 (100%)

Total 02 (3%) 29 (48%) 30 (49%) 61 (100%)


Aspertheabovementionedtable,about66percentrespondentsviewedthatthetrainingpolicy has not been implemented at all and 39 percent responded that the policy has been implemented partially. More than 9� percent respondents showed their concern that there are no practicestoidentifytrainingneedsbeforemakingtrainingprogrammesandcurriculums.About49 percent respondents expressed that the present training policy does not match with employees’ work performance and career planning, and only about 48 percent respondents expressed that it is partly matching with their careers, and about 3 percent respondents expressed that it has not been implemented.TheseresponsesandtheanalysisshowthatthesituationofimplementationofthegovernmentpolicyisverypoorinNAS

5.9. Suggestions for Improvement FortheimprovementoftrainingprogrammesinNAS,thefollowingquestionswereaskedtotherespondents: ‘The following statements are related to improve the trainings in NAS. Please ranknumber 1 to 12 according to your organization’s priority (1 represents the highest priority and 12 thelowest).Pleasedonotrepeatthenumbers.i. To provide sufficient budget for training institutions, (…)ii. Identify the training needs before sending employees for training, (…)iii. Improvement of training institutions, (…)iv. Revision of government rules, regulations and policies, (…)v. Effective implementation of government rules and regulations, (…) vi. Autonomy of training institutions, (…)vii. To provide training for trainers, (…)viii. Use of modern equipments, (…)ix. Improvement of training procedures, (…)x. To make positive attitude of employees about training, (…)xi. To start behavioural and result based evaluation system in training, (…)xii. Up-date training curriculum and materials, (…) Intheabovestatement,generalandtheoreticaltypesoftwelvesectorsarefocused.Basedon the observation, all these 12 sectors can be improved gradually and on time-bound basis. It takesalongtimeforimprovementandneedssomemorefocusedapproaches.Toimprovethese


sectorsonprioritybasis,thequestionswereputforwardexpectingtogetnumberedonrankingbasis.Therankingofrespondentsonprioritybasismarkedbytherespondentsareasfollows:

Table: 5.18 Ranking of Suggestions

S.N. SuggestionObtained Number

Ranking

1 Identify the training needs before sending employee for training 199 First2 To provide sufficient budget for training institutions 355 Second3 Improvement of training Institutions, 371 Third4 Up-date training curriculum and materials 375 Forth5 Revision of Government rules, regulations and policies 383 Fifth6 Effective implementation of Government rules and regulations 393 Sixth7 To provide training for trainers 424 Seventh8 Improvement of training procedures 426 Eighth9 To make positive attitude of employees about training, 427 Ninth

10 Use of modern equipments 451 Tenth11 To start behavioural and result based evaluation system in training 465 Eleventh12 Autonomy of training institutions 489 Twelfth


As mentioned in table No. �.18, it can be seen that the statement “Identify the training needs before sending employees for training” obtained only 199 numbers and reached the first position among twelve statements. Accordingly, the statement “Autonomy of training institutions” obtained 489 numbers and reached the twelfth position. Others from second to eleventh position obtained 3�� to 46� numbers. In a similar vein, ‘provide sufficient budget’, 'improvement of training institutions', 'up-date training curriculum and materials', 'improvement of Government rules, regulations and policies', 'effective implementation of Government rules and regulations', 'provide training for trainers', 'improvement of training procedures', 'try to make positive attitude of employees about training', 'use of modern equipments', and 'to start behavioral and result based evaluation system in training’ are in succeeding order. Thus, among the suggestions, though‘identifythetrainingneedsbeforesendingemployeesfortraining’hasgotthehighestmarks;itlacksinNAS,andneedsaspecialconsideration. For identifying other types of suggestions for the improvement of training in theirorganizations, we asked one open-ended question to the respondents. As a response to ourquestion,wegotthefollowingsuggestions:- Make training as an integral part of job and provide training in a regular interval. - Design training according to the behavior, knowledge and skills required for the

employees.- The training should be linked with promotion and posting of the concerned officials. - For professional standards of English language, office package of computer, management,

office layout and records management, communication and negotiation skills training should be provided for all officials.

- Trainingshouldbedirectlyrelatedtoenhancetheservicedeliverymethods.- Right man should be placed in the right place and according to the nature of job; specific

trainingshouldbegiventotheemployees.- HRplanningshouldbeinstitutionalized.- Select the participants according to the relevance of their job and nature


- Trainingshouldbeneedbasedratherthansupply-driven.- Contentoftrainingshouldbemorepracticalratherthantheoretical.- Trainingshouldbemadeaneasyaccess.Ineverychangingsituation,employeesshould

beprovidedwithtrainings.

As the suggestions for improvement of training, most of the respondents stressed theimplementation side of training. There are training policies and several training institutionsconducting several courses. The government is also providing sufficient budget, but the achievementof training isnotsatisfactory.So in thesecircumstances, the trainingneedshouldbe identified and modules should be revised, and it should be linked with job responsibilities. Monitoring and evaluation should be regular after training. Right persons should be selectedfor training programmes. Training should be result-oriented and practical. Trainers should beefficient. Everybody can be trained but everybody can not be a trainer. The system of marking of trainingforpromotionshouldbeabolished.Afterthecompletionofthetraining,theperformancestandard has to be set to evaluate the job done. Training should be provided to those who are reallyinterested.Thetrainingneedassessmentshouldbeconducted,andimportanceoftrainingmust be realized by higher level officers. Training should focus on moral or attitudinal side of the civilservants.Themostimportantthingisthatnationalpolicyoftrainingmustbeimplemented.6. Findings and Recommendations Basedonsamplesurvey,theexistingagefactorinNepalCivilServicerevealsthatthereare physically strong personnel in this service. There are experienced, qualified personnel in NAS. Inspiteoftheabovestrength,aprime-questionpersiststhere:Whyistheperformanceofservicelowandnon-performing?Mostoftheemployeesinadministrationservicehavehigheracademicdegreesthanrequired.Thereisasurplusbetweentheacquiredandrequiredlevelofeducationintheservice.Thecaseprevailsinotherwayroundintrainingaspects.Thereisacleargapbetweenacquiredand requirednumberof training for employees, and itneedsanurgent incrementoftrainings. The surface-relation of present training is not sufficient for present job. It is necessary to formulate training programmes highly relevant to the present nature of job. The view expressed bytherespondentsisthatthereisagapbetweenacquiredtrainingandpresentrequirement.Theactualtimedurationandtheexpectedtimedurationarefoundsome-howmiss-matching.Basedontheanalysis,thereisagapbetweenpresentandexpectedconsumed-timeofemployeestocompletetheir specific and designated regular task; some sort of reinforcement is imperative. Thus there is agapbetweenpresentandexpectedbehaviorofemployeesdealingwithclients.Thedifferenceinperceptionbetweenthesupervisorandemployeesshowsthatthegappersistsintheprocessofdecisionmaking,betweenpresentandexpectedwayofpresentationandresponseonmemoindecisionmakingprocess.Thestudyindicatesthatonlytheemployeesaredemandingtrainingfortheircareerdevelopment.Thesupervisorsneedtorealizetheneedforskilldevelopmentandtheyshouldalsoencouragetheemployeesfortraining.Therearevisiblegapsbetweenthepresentandexpectedcausesofinterestintraining.Therespondentshavetheviewthatonlythetraininginstitutions should conduct the trainings as per the need of the employee’s institutions. Theanalysisshowsthatthereisahugegapbetweenpracticingandexpectingsituationinselectingthetrainingmodulesaswell.Thereisagapbetweenpracticeandexpectationofselectingthetrainersand there are significant gaps between practicing and desired level of feedback mechanisms of the deliveredtrainings.Therearenoproperhumanresourceplanningandtrainingsystemsatall,asrequired.Thestudyalsoshowsthatthecreativethinkingandproblemsolvingskills,inconceptualandpracticalskillsareas;communication,teambuildingandmotivatingstaffintheinterpersonalskill; and identifying training needs and job analysis in the technical skill area are found dearth in


NAS.Inasimilarway,theimplementationaspectofthegovernmenttrainingpolicyisverypoorinNAS.Toimprovethesesectorsonprioritybasis,thequestionswereaskedexpectingtogetthesectorsnumberedon rankbasis.Among the suggestions, identifying the trainingneedsbeforesendingemployeesfortraininghasbeenplacedonthehighestpriority.ThisrankingshowsthattrainingneedsassessmentthatlacksinNAS,andneedstobestrengthenedandimproved. From the above findings, the followings are the recommendations for the enhancement of competenciesofNASthroughtraining:• NAS shall have to identify the training needs, before sending employees for training

programmes;• Make positive attitude of employees about training and to start behavioral and result

basedevaluationsystemintrainingonaregularbasis;• Provide sufficient budget for training institutions and improve training institutions;• Up-date training curriculum and materials according to the nature of job, training must

be relevant with present job and requirement;• Improvement of government rules, regulations and policies should be revised and

improved,andtheireffectiveimplementationshouldbestressed;• Humanresourceplanshouldbedevelopedincivilserviceandtrainingshouldbetied-up

withskillandcareerplanoftheemployees;• Improvetrainingproceduresandusemodernequipments;• More than three trainings, at least, should be provided for employees in every five years.

The following types of training should be provided to the employees:- Helpful to perform specific job in a short time,- Positiveattitudetrainingthathelpstheemployeestoexhibitahelpfulbehaviorwith

clientsandstakeholders,- Trainingshouldbehelpfulindecisionmakingtosortoutthethingspositivelybynot

violatingtheexistingrules- Creativethinking,problemsolvingandcommunicationrelatedtrainingsareneededto

enhancetheinterpersonalskills,- Teambuildingandmotivationorientedtrainingshouldbeorganized,- Identifying training needs and job analysis related training that focuses on technical

skillsshouldbeemphasized,• Theorganizationandsupervisorshouldinitiatethetrainingprogrammesandthey

shouldencouragetheirsubordinatesfortraining,accordingtoskillneedandfortheircareerdevelopment;

• Theorganizationshouldapproachtothetraininginstitutesforemployees’trainingandshouldsuggestontheselectionofthetrainingmodulesandtrainersaswell;

• Employee's organization and the training institute should develop regular feedbackmechanismofthedeliveredtrainings;

• “Training Policy, 20�8” should be revised and fully implemented; • Thequalityoftrainersshouldbeupliftedbyprovidingthemwithspecialtrainings;• The objectives of the training should be clear and the training should aim at

improvingqualityratherthanquantity;• Trainingshouldbemorepracticalthantheoretical;• Managersshouldfollowtheprincipleof‘therightmanintherightplaceinthe

righttime.


BibliographyAgrawal, Govinda Ram (20�8), Human Resource Development in Nepal, Kathmandu, M.K.

PublishersandDistributors.Agrawal, Govinda Ram (2002), Dynamics of Human Resource Management in Nepal,Kathmandu,

M.K.PublishersandDistributors.Agrawal, Govinda Ram (2007), Dynamics of Human Resource Management in Nepal,Kathmandu,

M.K.PublishersandDistributors.Bhatta, Bhim Dev (2003), Vikas Prashasan, (Nepali), Kathmandu, Indira Bhatta.Bhattarai, Manoj (2003), Human Resource Management, Kathmandu, Dhaulagiri Book and

Stationary.Bista, Bal Govinda (206�), Nijamati Sewama Talim Sudhridikaran, (Nepali), Kathmandu, study

project report submitted to Ministry of General Administration.Dhar, Ruby (1999), Human Resource Development,NewDelhi,InstituteofAppliedManpower

Research.Edwin B. Flippo (1984), Personnel Management,NewYork,McGraw-Hill.Goel, S.L. (198�), Public Personnel Administration, New Delhi, Sterling Publishers Private

Limited.GovernmentofNepal,Eleventh Plan, 2008-2011,Kathmandu,NationalPlanningCommission.GovernmentofNepal,Nepalko Antarim Samvidhan, 206� (Nepali), Kathmandu Kanun Kitab

Samiti.GovernmentofNepal,Nijamati Sewa Ain, 2049, (Nepali), Kathmandu, Kanun Kitab Samiti, Government of Nepal, Nijamati Sewa Niyamali, 20�0, (Nepali), Kathmandu Kanun Kitab

Samiti.Mitchell, Terence R. (1982), An Introduction to Organizational Behavior,NewDelhi,Megraw-

HallBookCompany.Prasad L. M. (2001), Principles and Practice of Management,NewDelhi,SultanChandandSons,

EducationalPublishers.Rolf P Lynton and Udai Pareek (1990), Training for Development, New Delhi, Vistaar

Publication.Sharma, Harsh (1999), Educational Planning, New Delhi, Institute of Applied Manpower

Research.Tiwari, Madhu Nidhi (2060), Nepalko Nijamati Sewama Janashakti Byawasthapan, (Nepali),

Kathmandu,KantiTiwari.


Separation of Powers and check and balance in Nepalese context

Atmadev josh*

AbstractThe separation of powers is indispensable while framing the constitution as it recommends the allocation of powers to the different institutions. This issue for Nepal is of utmost importance not only because we are going to frame a new constitution but also because we need to be restructured under the principles of federalism. However, the principle of separation of powers cannot be completely followed. The principle of check and balance is necessary to rationalize the separation of powers. Independence of judiciary is important for the protection of freedoms and fundamental rights guaranteed by the constitution and there is no meaning of such rights without independence of judiciary.

Separation of Powers Theseparationofpowers,alsoknownastrias politica,isamodelofthegovernanceofdemocratic states. The model was first developed in ancient Greece and came into widespread use bytheRomanRepublic as part of the un-codified Constitution of the Roman Republic. Under this model,thestateisdividedintobranchesorestates,eachwithseparateandindependentpowersandareasofresponsibility.Thenormaldivisionofestatesisintoanexecutive,alegislature,andajudiciary.1

Thedoctrineofseparation of powers developed over many centuries. The practiceof this doctrine can be traced back to the British Parliament’s gradual assertion of power andresistance to royal decrees during the 14th century. English scholar James Harrington was one of the first modern philosophers to analyze the doctrine in his essay Commonwealth of Oceana(16�6), Harrington—building on the work of earlier philosophers Aristotle, Plato, and Niccolò Machiavelli—described a utopian political system that included a separation of powers. English political theorist John Locke gave the concept of separation of powers more refined treatment in hisSecondTreatiseofGovernment (1690). Locke argued that legislative and executive powers wereconceptuallydifferent,butthatitwasnotalwaysnecessarytoseparatethemingovernmentinstitutions.JudicialpowerplayednoroleinLocke’sthinking.2 The doctrine of "the separation of powers" as usually understood is derived fromMontesquieu3,whose elaboration of it was based on a study of Locke's writings4Whatthedoctrine

* Section Officer, Appellate Court Jumla.

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mustbe taken toadvocate is thepreventionof tyrannyby theconfermentof toomuchpoweronanyonepersonorbody,andthecheckofonepowerbyanother.ThereisanechoofthisinBlackstone's commentaries (176�), "In all tyrannical Governments... the right of making and of enforcingthelawsisvestedinoneandthesameman,orthesamebodyofmenandwhere-so-everthese twopowersareunitedtogether therecanbeno liberty."�Montesquieu,aFrenchscholar,conceivedtheprincipleofseparation.Hefoundoutthattheconcentrationofpowerinonepersonoragroupofpersonsresultedintyranny.Hetherefore,feltthatthegovernmentalpowershouldbe vested in three different organs, the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. The principle canbestatedasfollows:• Eachorganshouldbeindependentoftheother;• Nooneorganshouldperformfunctionsthatbelongtotheothers.

This theory has got different applications in France, USA, and England. In France, it resulted in the rejection of the power of the courts to review acts of the legislature or the executive. The existence of separate administrative courts to adjudicate disputes between the citizen and the administration owes its origin to the theory, of separation of powers.6 The principle wascategorically adopted in the making of the Constitution of the United States of America. There is nodirectstatementofthedoctrineofSeparationofPowersintheConstitutionitself.Itisinferredfrom the opening sentence of each of the constitution's three articles. Article one begins by saying "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States....", article twobeginswiththestatementas:"TheExecutivepowershallbevestedinthePresidentof theUnited States of America....", article three states: "The judicial power of the United States shall be vestedinoneSupremeCourtandinsuchinferiorcourtsastheCongressmayfromtimetotimeordainandestablish.TheConstitutionmakers thusprovided that theoperationof eachof thethreeprocessesofgovernmentshouldbeentrustedtoaseparateagency.ThelegislativeprocessisoperatedbyanindependentCongress,theexecutiveprocessbyanindependentPresidentandthe judicial process by an independent Supreme Court and subordinate courts. There must be no overlappingeitheroffunctionsorofpersons. Onthebasisofthisarrangement,thedoctrineoftheseparationofpowershasfromthefirst been early established as a principle of governmental organization in the United States and ithasbeenenforcedbythecourtsexactlyasanyotherlegalrule.Oneofthemanystatementsofit is found in the judgment of the Supreme Court in Kalbourn vs. Thompson7.Thecourtdeclared:"ItisbelievedtobeoneofthechiefmeritsoftheAmericansystemofwrittenconstitutionallawthatallpowersentrustedtogovernment,whetherstateornationalaredividedintothreegranddepartments - the executive, the legislative and the judicial; that the functions appropriate to eachofthesebranchesofpublicservants;andthattheperfectionofthesystemrequiresthatthelines which separate and divide these departments shall be broadly and clearly defined. It is also essentialtothesuccessfulworkingofthissystemthatthepersonsentrustedwithpowerinanyoneof these branches shall not be permitted to encroach upon the powers confined to others but that eachshallbythelawofitscreationbelimitedtoitsowndepartmentandnoother." Thebasicandintegralschemeoftheseparationofpowersrequiresconfermentofthepowerof judicial review in the judiciary. That is an acknowledged basic aspect of world constitutions and constitutionality.Judicialreview,asoriginallyconceivedisgenerallyunderstoodtoemanatefromthe judgment of chief Justice Marshall in the American Supreme Court in Marbury v. Madison in the year 1803. It was strongly resented by the other wings, nevertheless, it had been forgotten

5�� Ib��-��O��H��6�� Administrative Law (1991)��16��N�M��M��b��I��7�� C��K��Select Constitutions (1995),��1�0��C��&��C��N�w��D��


thosetwocenturiesbeforechiefJusticeMarshall.ItwasLordCokewhohadsaidthesamethingin Dr. Bonham's Case. Now it is an acknowledged basic feature of the constitution. That is the significance of the role of the judiciary envisaged by constitutions across the globe.8

Check and balance Themostconvincedbelieversinthedoctrineoftheseparationofpowersacknowledgedthatanabsoluteseparationofthethreedepartmentsofgovernmentwouldmakegovernmentitselfimpossible.AccordingtoMadison,theprinciple"doesnotrequirethatthelegislative,executiveand judiciary departments should wholly be unconnected with each other." He proceeded to prove that"unlessthesethreedepartmentsbesofarconnectedandblendedastogiveeachconstitutionalcontrolovertheothers,thedegreeofseparationwhichthemaximrequiresasessentialtoafreegovernment can never in practice be duly maintained." Unlimited power, it was argued, was always dangerous and the very definition of tyranny, unless power was made a check to power. It could also be possible that different officials exercising different kinds of powers might pool their authoritytogetherandactinatyrannicalway9. The framers of the constitution, accordingly, introduced modification to the doctrine of the separation of powers when they come to details by setting up what are called 'checks and balances'. Havingdividedgovernment intoa three - foldprocessandhavingassigned toeachprocessasupposedly independent branch, the Philadelphia Convention authorized a very considerableamount of participation in, or 'checking' of the affairs of each branch by the other two10.Expressedinsimplewords,insteadofcompleteseparationofthethreebranchesofgovernment,eachwasgivenenoughauthorityinotherfunctionalareastogiveitacheckonitscompanionbranches.Theobject was to make exercise of power limited, controlled and diffused. So, it does not distribute eachofthethreeprocessestooneoftheseinstitutionswithabsoluteexclusiveness. In spite of the very definite words which have been quoted, the American constitution does introduce some qualifications. Thus, although all legislative powers are granted to the Congress, the President has power to veto its acts and his veto can be overridden only by a two thirds majority inbothhouses;althoughexecutivepowerisvestedinthepresident,hemustasktheadviceandconsentofthesenateforthemakingoftreatiesandforimportantappointments,includingthoseof members of his own cabinet; and although judicial power is vested in a supreme court and subordinatecourts,thesenateisempoweredtotryimpeachments,includinganimpeachmentonthepresident,althoughwhentrailofthepresidentonimpeachmentoccurs,theChiefJusticeofthe United States of America presides over the senate.11Thesefewexamplesareenoughtoshowthat there is not a complete separation of the processes of government in the United States. They overlapfromoneofthecarefullyseparatedinstitutionstoanother.Theinstitutionsthemselves,however,aremuchmorerigidlyseparated;asitisanaspectoftheseparationofpowerswhichdistinguishestheAmericanconstitutionmoreobviouslyfromsomeothers. InIndia,theexecutiveisapartofthelegislature.Thepresidentistheheadoftheexecutivebutheactsontheadviceof theCouncilofMinisters.Hecanbe impeachedbytheparliament.TheCouncilofMinistersiscollectivelyresponsibletotheLokSabhaandisthereforeremovableby it. There is separation only so far as the judiciary and other organs of the government are concerned. The judges of the superior courts are appointed by the government, although they can beremovedonlybytheparliament,andtheirsalariesareprovidedbytheconstitutionorcanbelaiddownbyalawmadebytheparliament.Thecourtscandeclarelegislativeaswellasexecutive

8�� M��V��Constitutions of the world (2003) ��x��U��w��b��C��9�� (K��)��Supra��7�10�� Ibid11�� K�C��W��, Modern Constitutions(1984)��6��Ox��U��


actsunconstitutional.12SowecansaythatthesystemoperatesinIndiaisnotbasedonthedoctrineoftheseparationofpowersinitrigidlybutthereisthesystemofcheckandbalance. InBritain,thereisuniquesystemofgovernment.Thereisnowrittenformofconstitution.Britain has not adopted the principle of the separation of powers and check and balanceconstitutionally. The monarch is the commander-in- chief of all the British Force during peaceand war. War is declared in her majesty’s name, peace and treaties are negotiated and concluded inthename,peaceandtreatiesarenegotiatedandconcludedinthenameandonbehalfoftheMonarch. Government documents are published by Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. All people in the United Kingdom are the loyal subjects of the monarch. In short, there is no act of government which is not attributed to the monarch’s name and person. Her Majesty’s powers in terms of law areuncontrolled,unrestrictedandabsolute.13Butallthisisintheory.Inpractice,themonarchdoesnothingbydoingeverything,therealpowerrestswiththekingsdulyconstitutedministersandHis Majesty remains only a symbol of authority.14

The British constitution establishes the supremacy of the parliament. It means thatparliamentissupreme.Itcanmakeandcancelanykindoflawandnocourtintherealmcanquestionitsvalidity.Theauthorityoftheparliamentistranscendentalandabsolute,anditembracesboththeenactmentsofordinarylawsandthemostprofoundchangesinthegovernmentitself.Thereisno judicial review and no authority can declare that the laws made by the parliament are ultra. It may be noted also that even in countries where the doctrine of the separation ofpowers appears to be rejected, where legislative powers may be exercised by the executive withoutrestriction,andwheretheheadsoftheexecutivesitinparliament-itisusuallyappliedto a large extent where the judicial process is concerned. Indeed, in almost all countries where the constitution establishes or permits the parliamentary executive, and the linking or fusingof functions and institutions, it establishes the independence or separation of the judiciary to a substantialdegree.1�

Nepalese Context: In 1990, Nepal adopted its fifth and first fully democratic constitution. Although there weremanygoodfeaturesaboutthatconstitution,itfailedtosatisfythedemandsofmanyNepalipeople. There was also a sense that the constitution of 1990 had limited involvement of the people in its making and that it came formally into being not as an act of the people's sovereignty but asagiftoftheking.AmongtheshortcomingsoftheconstitutionintheeyesofmanyweretheinsistencethatNepalisaHindukingdom,theinclusionofmanyimportanteconomicandsocialrightas"directiveprinciples"only,whichmeanstheywerenottobeusedasthebasisforlegalclaims; inadequate provisions for civilian control of the army; excessive power given to theking;TenyearsofMaoistinsurgencyandprovisionsthatwerenotclearenoughaboutthekingspowers, thus making it possible for those powers to be abused. After a people's movement (Jana Andolan),in April, 2006, the king ultimate reinstated the parliament originally elected in 1999. The re-establishedHouseofRepresentativesmadethedeclaration,thattheHouseofRepresentativeswassovereignfortheexerciseofalltherightsuntilanotherconstitutionalarrangementwasmadeto take the responsibility to gear ahead in the direction of full-fledged democracy and made an end to the autocratic monarchy by institutionalizing the achievements of the present peoples' movement, while safeguarding the achievements of the 1990 people's movement. The inconsistent legal arrangements of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal-1990 and other prevailing laws,

1�� (��&��H��)��Supra,��1�� (��)��Supra��6��9�1�� Ib��15�� (��O��H��)��Supra��7


with this declaration, were nullified to the extent of inconsistency.16 It had no any provisionsabout judiciary's power and activity, althoughthisactionofparliamentwasseenhavingvariousproblemsregardingthebalancetheoryofpowers.AfterthismovementadecisionwasmadetohaveanInterimConstitution. An important aspect of the Interim Constitution - which gives it its interim nature isthat,itprovidesforthesettingupoftheConstituentAssemblyandthepreparationofthenewconstitution.Thebasicsoftheexistinggovernmental,parliamentary,systemremainintheInterimConstitution.However,thereisnolongerasecondhouseofparliamentbutmostofitsmembersaremergedintotheHouseofRepresentativesandtherehadtobeprovisionforthenominatedMaoist members of the house. The interim nature of the arrangements is also signified by the insistencethatdecisionmakingistobebyconsensus,includingtheselectionofthePrimeMinister.This was carried out to the extent that there was no provision for a vote of no- confidence in the government. This was changed in the second amendment in June 2007. The fourth amendment declaredNepaltobeafederaldemocraticrepublic,createdthepostofpresidentasaheadofstateandavice-president. In the Interim Constitution, the provisions about separation of powers and check andbalance do not much vary, in surface, than the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 2047 B.S. TheexecutivepowerofNepalshall,pursuanttothisconstitutionandotherlaws,bevestedintheCouncilofMinisters.17Thelawmakingpowerisvestedtothelegislature-parliament18.Powersrelating to justice in Nepal shall be exercised by courts and other judicial institutions in accordance with the provisions of this constitution, the laws and the recognized principles of justice. Parliamentary democracies do not have distinct separation of powers. The executive,whichoftenconsistsofaprimeministerandcabinet ("government"), is drawn from the legislature (parliament).Thisistheprincipleofresponsiblegovernment.However,althoughthelegislativeandexecutivebranchesareconnectedinparliamentarysystems,thereisusuallyanindependent judiciary and the government's role in the parliament does not give them unlimited legislative influence. There are some provisions in the Interim Constitution of 2000 regarding the judiciary which are against the principle of independence of judiciary and the separation of power19.Under the Interim Constitution, the chief justice is still appointed on the recommendation of the ConstitutionalCouncil,butthatbodyiseffectivelydominatedbytheexecutive.AndtheJudicialCouncil is significantly less independent of the executive than it was under the 1990 Constitution. In short, theChief Justicewillbeahelplessminorityvoice in theadvocacyofan independentjudiciary. On the face of it, the provisions for the removal of judges in the Interim Constitution are similar to the provisions of the 1990 Constitution, but if the legislature is dominated by political consensus, there is a risk that Supreme Court judges could be removed by political consensus too. Lower Court judges are still removed by the Judicial Council, which may be executive-dominated. And there is, worryingly, a new ground for the removal of Lower Court judges: on the grounds of 'deviation of justice'; this language may open the way for the executive to remove judges who makedecisionsthattheexecutivedoesnotlike.TheInterimConstitutionalsoincludesavaguequalification about a candidate's moral character, which it says, needs to be considered during a candidate's appointment, but such vaguely worded criteria can prove problematic like; who is qualified to determine a candidate's character, and what characteristics would disqualify a candidateonthegroundsofpoormoralcharacter?’etc.

16 See more: http://www.himwaves.com/introduction.php?con=Nepal&id=96, visited at 02-Jun-0917�� Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2063��7(1)18�� Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2063��8�(1)19 Atmadev Joshi, Structure of Judiciary in Next Constitution��N��065��106�


Theconstitutionmakingprocess isgoingonandthere isstilluncertaintyaboutwhichtype of government would be there in the future constitution of Nepal. The major debates are about forms of government, independence of judiciary, federalism etc. which are closely related with the separation of powers and check and balance. The final draft of the new constitution has notbeenpreparedyetasthereportsofthematiccommitteesarecontradictorywitheachotherinprincipleagendasofpowersharing. InthecaseofAdvocate Kamalesh Dubedhi et.al, Vs. Office of the Prime Minister et.al,20Supreme Court has opined that the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2000 has the provision of the separation of powers and check and balance, it has no provision of legislative/parliamentsupremacybutithastheprovisionofconstitutionalsupremacy.Inthepreamble,ithasdeclaredfreedom,fundamentalrightsandhumanrightsofNepalesecitizensandfurtherdeclaredfortheindependence of judiciary. The real meaning of state ruled by the rule of law isthedeclarationofindependence of judiciary. Independence of judiciary is important for the protection of freedoms and fundamental rightsguaranteedby theconstitutionand there isnomeaningofsuchrightswithout independence of judiciary.

Conclusion The significance of the separation of powers can also be stated by saying that it is a doctrine whichisfundamentaltotheorganizationofastateandtotheconceptofconstitutionalisminsofarasitprescribestheappropriateallocationofpowers,andthelimitsofthosepowerstodifferinginstitutions. The separation of powers is indispensable while framing the constitution as itrecommendstheallocationofpowerstothedifferentinstitutions.ThisissueforNepalisofutmostimportancenotonlybecausewearegoingtoframeanewconstitutionbutalsobecauseweneedtoberestructuredunder theprinciplesof federalism.However, theprincipleof theseparationof powers cannot be completely followed. The principle of check and balance is necessary torationalize the separation of powers. Independence of judiciary is important for the protection of freedomsandfundamentalrightsguaranteedbytheconstitutionandthereisnomeaningofsuchrights without independence of judiciary.

([email protected])

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Measuring Poverty: Choosing a Right Index

Tara Nath Adhikar*

The greatest of evils and the worst of crimes is poverty.GB Shaw

Introduction Poverty is a major problem of the world. Poverty is challenging the values of humanity. The reduction of poverty is a principle target of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) declared by the United Nations (UN). The official goal of the World Bank is also to the reduction of poverty. Eachgovernmentof thedevelopingworldhasbeen formulatingand implementingpoliciesofthe poverty reduction. This clarifies universal commitment and priority of the issue of poverty reduction. In spiteofglobalandnationalpriority, thepoverty reductionpracticesandpoliciesare not effective (UNDP 2010); the number of people living in severe destitution is rising (e.g., approximately 300 billion people are living below 2$ a day). Whatpovertyistakentomeandependsonwhoasksthequestion,howitisunderstood,and who responds (Chambers 2006). Statement of Chambers explores about the organizational perceptive variations on measurement of the poverty. For instance, WB says number of poorpeople in the world is 2 billion; UNDP says that number is 4 billion and the sum of the data of nationalgovernmentmaycreatedifferentresults.

Problem Identification The responsibility and accountability of the government is evaluated by the level ofpoverty.So,povertymeasurementisthecoreproblemofpublicpolicydomain.Variationsontheresults of the indicators should be responded to make public policy more objective and evidence- based.Sinceeliminatingpovertyrequiresbettermeasurementofpoverty,thispaperwillexplainexisting major indicators of poverty measurement and then suggest a better indicator for the povertymeasurement.

Thesis Statement Toanalyzetheexistingindicatorsofpovertymeasurementanddevelopabetterindicatorofpovertymeasurement

Discussions Poverty measurement method is classified broadly into two categories. One is single dimensional and another is multidimensional. Single Dimensional Poverty Index (SDPI) is based on one variable (generally income or consumption). World Bank and national governments of developing world have been measuring poverty based on single dimension (i.e. income). First, theysetuppovertylineandthencountthenumberofpeoplefallingbelowthepovertyline.Thepercentageofthepeoplefallingbelowthepovertylineisattributedasthepovertyoftheregionorcountry.Povertylineistheamountofincomerequiredforapersontopurchaseabasketoffoodfor minimum subsistence (Chu 2011). The basket includes minimum amount of food required for

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minimum calories (e.g., 2144 calorie).The poverty line is 1.2� $ a day (World Bank 2011). This can be illustrated by an example of hypothetical country X. The country has � persons A, B, C, D, and E with income 0.8$, 1.40$, 1$, 7$, and 12$ per day respectively. In this example, A and C are poor and the percentage of the poor people in the country is equal to 2/�*100% = 40%. SDPI ignores health andeducationneedsofthepoor.Itisnotfeasiblethatanindividualcouldsurvivewithincome1.2�$ a day. Thus, Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) has been developed which integrates fundamentalaspectsofhumanlifeotherthanincome. The MPI was created for the 20th anniversary edition of the human development report published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). MPI utilizes different factors to evaluate poverty beyond income (UNDP 2010). Initially, this MPI was developed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) at Oxford University. The MPI assesses the nature and intensity of poverty at the individual level, with poor people being those who aremultiplilydeprivedandtheextentoftheirpovertybeingmeasuredbytheextentofdeprivations(Alkire, and Santos 2010). MPI displays deprivations in education, health and living standard.

The indicators of MPI under the education, health and living standard are as follows: A. Education (each indicator is weighed equally at 1/6)

(1) Years of Schooling: (deprived if no household member has completed five years of schooling)

(2) Child Enrolment: (deprived if any school-aged child is not attending school in years 1to8)

B. Health (each indicator is weighed equally at 1/6) (3) Child Mortality: (deprived if any child has died in the family) (4) Nutrition: (deprived if any adult or child for whom there is nutritional information

ismalnourished)C. Standard of Living (each indicator is weighed equally at 1/18)

(�) Electricity: (deprived if the household has no electricity) (6) Drinking water: (deprived if the household does not have access to clean drinking

water or clean water is more than 30 minutes walk from home) (7) Sanitation: (deprived if they do not have an improved toilet or if their toilet is

shared)(8) Flooring: (deprived if the household has dirt, sand or dung floor) (9) Cooking Fuel: (deprived if they cook with wood, charcoal or dung) (10) Assets: (deprived if the household does not own more than one of: radio, TV,

telephone, bike, or motorbike, and do not own a car) (Alkire, and Santos 2010)

The MPI reveals the combination of deprivations. A household is identified as multidimensional poor if and only if it is deprived in some combination of indicators whoseweighed sum exceeds 30% of all deprivations. This deprivation on corresponding indicator is measured by either 0% or 100%. If there is full deprivation, score of that indicator is 100% and if there is no deprivation, score of that indicator is 0%. The calculation of the poverty based on MPI isshownintheAppendixAattheendofthispaper.

Analysis of the SDPI and MPI SDPI, based on income, is easy to calculate and understand. It enjoys high availability ofthedataandnaturalclarity.However,SDPIdeniesdeprivationsinwell-being.Povertyisalsothe state of deprivations in health, education and living standard. It is to be noted that 1.2�$ a day is extremely insufficient to survive with the achievement of basic human facilities of the third millennium.


MPIisbasedonhumandevelopmentapproach.MPIfocusesonsocialelementsofhumanlife and defines poverty measurement. It expands pluralistic theories of the development. However, MPIlacksaccuratedataandclarity.Itistechnicallycomplextounderstandandcompute.MPIissilentonincomeoftheindividualandhousehold.Incomeisthemostfundamentalfactorwhichaccumulatesmonetaryassets.Withoutmonetaryasset,thelifeofthehumanbeinginthepresentworldisunfeasibleandnoonewillbeabletohavehealthoreducationservices.Theindicatorsof MPI deny income. The exclusion of income on the calculation of the poverty is the significant erroroftheMPI.Thus,bothSDPIandMPIhaveerrorsintheirformsanddesignsandhenceinthemeasurement.

Solution of the Problem ByremovingtheerrorsandreinforcingthemeritsofbothSDPIandMPI,thenewindexofpovertymeasurementcanbeexplored.MPIexcludesincomeandoverhighlightsindicatorsonlivingstandard.SDPIdependsonlyonincomeandignoresbasichumanfacilities.Theproposednew index of poverty measurement is named as Enhanced Poverty Index (EPI). The proposed index EPI constitutes seven indicators. It incorporates adjusted income and six indicators of MPI.

The proposed EPI suggests seven indicators for the poverty measurement which are as follows: A. (1) Income in $ per day (this indicator is weighed to 4/18 and measured as deprived if

average household income of adults more than 19 years old is less than 8 $ a day) B. Education (each indicator is weighed equally at 1/6) (2) Years of Schooling: (deprived if no household member has completed five years of

schooling) (3) Child Enrolment: (deprived if any school-aged child is not attending school in years

1to8)C. Health (each indicator is weighed equally at 1/6) (4) Child Mortality: (deprived if any child has died in the family) (�) Nutrition: (deprived if any adult or child for whom there is nutritional information

ismalnourished)D. Standard of Living (each indicator is weighed equally at 1/18) (6) Electricity: (deprived if the household has no electricity) (7) Drinking water: (deprived if the household does not have access to clean drinking

water or clean water is more than 30 minutes walk from home) ThecalculationprocedureofEPIisexplainedinAppendixB.

Conclusion Ifwemeasurewrongthings,wedowrongthings.Thewrongmeasurementofthepovertymayleadtothewrongformulationofthepolicyonpovertyandthepovertywouldnotbesolvedin the days to come. Therefore, the right measurement of the poverty is required for the objective formulationofpro-poorpolicyanditseffectiverealizationthroughtheultimateimplementation.Enhanced Poverty Index (EPI) as mentioned and developed in preceding paragraphs is more scientific, objective, inclusive, and rational than the SDPI and MPI. The EPI is dynamic and innovative adjustment of the SDPI and MPI. It has been developed based on the two giants SDPI and MPI (the giants are as imagined by Sir Isaac Newton). EPI excludes over highlights of the MPIandincludesunderhighlightsoftheSDPI.Itistobesuggestedtothenationalgovernments,the United Nations, and the World Bank to re-think on homogeneity and accuracy of the poverty measurementindicators.Theymustusesameindicatorforthemeasurement.Theextentofpoverty


shouldbeexplainedonthesamewayastheearthisone.TheproposedEPIwouldbeoneoftheindicators under the discussion between the institutions like national governments, the United NationsandtheWorldBank.

Appendix A

CalculationoftheMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(Alkire, and Santos 2010)TheMPIiscalculatedasfollows:

Fictionalexample CountryXconsistsofpersonsA,BandC.Thefollowingtableshowsthedeprivationoneachofthe10indicatorsforpersonsA,BandC. "0%" indicates no deprivation in that indicator, while "100%" indicates deprivation in that indicator.

Indicator Weight Person A Person B Person C

(1) Years of Schooling 1/6 0% 0% 0%

(2) Child Enrolment 1/6 0% 0% 0%

(3) Child Mortality 1/6 100% 100% 0%

(4) Nutrition 1/6 0% 100% 0%

(5) Electricity 1/18 0% 100% 100%

(6) Drinking Water 1/18 0% 100% 100%

(7) Sanitation 1/18 0% 0% 100%

(8) Flooring 1/18 100% 100% 100%

(9) Cooking Fuel 1/18 100% 0% 100%

(10) Assets 1/18 100% 0% 0%

Weighed score 33.33% 50.00% 27.78%

Status MPI poor MPI poor Not MPI poor

Person A and B are MPI poor because the weighed sum of the deprivations exceeds 30%.Person C is not MPI poor because the weighed sum of the deprivations is less than 30%.Percentage of poor people in the country X is 2/3*100% = 66.67%

Appendix B

Calculation of the Enhanced Poverty Index (EPI)TheEPIiscalculatedasfollows:Fictional example CountryYconsistsofpersonsA,BandC.Thefollowingtableshowsthedeprivationoneach of the 7 indicators for persons A, B and C. "0%" indicates no deprivation in that indicator, while "100%" indicates deprivation in that indicator.


Indicator Weight Person A Person B Person C

(1) Income in $ per day 4/18 100% 0% 0%

(2) Years of Schooling 1/6 0% 0% 0%

(3) Child Enrolment 1/6 100% 0% 0%

(4) Child Mortality 1/6 0% 100% 0%

(5) Nutrition 1/18 0% 100% 100%

(6) Electricity 1/18 100% 0% 100%

(7) Drinking Water 1/18 0% 0% 100%

Weighed score 44.44% 22.22% 16.67%

Status EPI poor NotEPI poor Not EPI poor

Person A is EPI poor because the weighed sum of the deprivations exceeds 30%.Person B and C are not EPI poor because the weighed sum of the deprivations is less than 30%.Percentage of poor people in the country Y is 1/3*100% = 33.33%

Note ThisImprovedPovertyIndexisthecombinedversionoftheSDPIandMPI.TheEPIisbasedonthe ideaofMPIdevelopedbyOxfordPovertyandHumanDevelopmentInitiativeatOxford University (OPHI), UK.

ReferencesAlkire, Sabina, and Emma Santos (2010), Multidimensional Poverty Index, Oxford: Oxford

Poverty Human Development Initiative, Oxford University. Chambers, Robert (2006), What is Poverty? Who Asks? Who Answers? In Poverty in Focus,eds.

Dag Ehrenpreis. New York: UNDP.Chu, Ke-Young (2011), Income Distribution and Poverty Reduction,Suwon,Korea:KyungHee

University.United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2010), Human Development Report 2010,

New York: UNDP.World Bank (2011), World Development Report 2010,Washington:WorldBank.http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTWDRS/

EXTWDR2010/ 0,,contentMDK:21969137~menuPK:�287748~pagePK:64167689~piPK:64167673~theSitePK:�287741,00.html (June 3, 2010).


A Critical Overview of Nepal’s Economic Diplomacy: Prospects and Constraints

Kushal Pokharel*

Abstract Economic diplomacy is the only plausible means to bring socio-economic transformation in the country. The obstacles that have surfaced in pursuit of economic diplomacy can be easily tackled if the political leadership of the country do not meddle in the Foreign Service bureaucracy. Likewise, attracting competent candidates for the job of Foreign Service can prove to be a milestone to advance our foreign policies through a pool of talented and enthusiastic employees. By tapping the opportunities bestowed upon us by the nature and culture, it is quite probable that Nepal can promote its economic interests through five pillars- tourism, foreign aid, trade, investment and labour.

Keywords:socio-economictransformation,investmentandcompetentcandidates.

1. Background The concept of economic prosperity emerged during the 18th century which is knownasclassicalfreetradedoctrinepropoundedbyAdamSmithandthecomparativecosttheoryofDavid Ricardo. However, this notion has been widely used only after the 1970s as the process of liberalization; privatization and globalization proliferated in the global and regional regime ofinternationaltrade.EuropehadpursuedatraditionalmechanismofprotectionismandMargaretThatcher in 1970s came up with the new doctrine of liberalization and privatization. As Thatcherism gainedmomentum,manycountriesoftheworldhavebeenusingthechannelsofdiplomacynotonlyforpoliticalpurposebutalsoforeconomicadvancements.Theterm‘economicdiplomacy’isofrecentorigin.Intheearlydays,thetermtradediplomacywasusedtodenoteanarrowsenseoftradeandcommercialrelationsbetweennation-states.Thenotionoftradediplomacybecamepopular with the nationalization of industries in many countries across the world from 19�0’s to 1970’s. As a result, the gradual involvement of diplomatic representatives for the promotion of tradeandbusinessincreasedandthesenation-stateswereinterestedincreatingnewmarketsfortheproductsoftheirhomecountryabroad. After the end of the Second World War, the discourse of international relations wasundergoinganeraoftransition,paradigmshiftandneweconomicbalance.Stateownedeconomiescouldnotyieldtangibleresultsfortheeconomicgrowthofthecountries.Consequently,countriesstartedadoptingthepoliciesofliberatingtheireconomiesfromtherestrictionsofthegovernmentand felt the need of foreign aid and investment to ensure their economic sustainability. Toaccomplishthistask,themobilizationofdiplomaticmissionsforconvincingtheforeigninvestors

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andshiftingthefocusofforeignpolicyapparatusforpolicydialogueandlobbyingpertainingtotheissueofeconomicdiplomacycameattheforefront.Inthisglobaltrend,Nepalwasnoexception.Nepalese economy suffers from structural inherent constraints comprising land- locked-ness,ruggedtopography,poorresourcebase,highextentofpoverty,andsluggisheconomicreforms.The major challenge to Nepalese economy is to integrate the domestic economy with regional and global economies and maximize the benefits of globalization. However, a vast potential for robust growth with poverty reduction through efficiently utilizing available domestic and internationalcapital,technology,naturalresourcesandentrepreneurshiptomakeabreakthroughintheeconomicfrontstillexists.Moreover,Nepal’sstrategiclocation,amidsttwoneighbouringeconomicgiantslikeIndiaandChina,providesatremendousscopeforgeneratingspillovereffectsonNepaleseeconomy.AlsoNepal.,being theheadquarterofSAARC,couldmobilize regionalco-operation by attracting foreign direct investment to create a win-win effects in mutuallybeneficial areas especially natural resources and biodiversity, regional trade, tourism, education andhealth-sectorswhereintheedgeofcomparativeandcompetitiveedgesdoexist.Againstthisbackdrop, “economic diplomacy” is being considered as a vital component of Nepal’s foreign policy particularly after the 1990s.

2. Conceptualizing Economic Diplomacy Economicdiplomacyreferstotheformulationandadvancementofpoliciespertainingtoproduction,movement,exchangeofgoods,services,labourandinvestmentinothercountries.Itisprofoundlyinterestedinexploringtheissuesofeconomicpolicies.Itisthatformofdiplomacywhichemploysresources,eitherasrewardorpunishmentinpursuitofaparticularforeignpolicyobjective. Besides foreign trade, it includes external investments, financial flows, aid, bilateral and multilateraleconomicnegotiationsandtechnologicalexchanges. It engages in contacts with foreign and sending states’ institutions, businesses andinternational organizations to advocate the sending state’s economic interests; seeks to resolvebilateraltradedisputesandnegotiatewithtradingpartnerstoliberalizeworldtrade.Adistinctfeatureofeconomicdiplomacyisthat,privatesectorsareinvolvedinthedecisionmakingprocessto influence negotiating position and to remain in the global or regional competitive market. This isbecausemarketdevelopmentsarerigorouslymonitoredbyprivatesectorsandtheyknowwhereandhowtoinvestandsellgoodsandservicesintheinterestsofacountry. Rana (2007) defines economic diplomacy as “the process through which a country tackles the outside world to maximize their national gain in all field of activities including trade, investment and other forms of economically beneficial exchanges where they enjoy competitive advantages’. Ithasbilateral, regional andmultilateral dimensions, eachofwhich is important.According to him, economic diplomacy is the use of political influence and relationships to: @ Promoteinternationaltradeandinvestments,improvethefunctioningofmarkets@ Reducethecostsandrisksofcross-bordertransactions@ Secureprivatepropertyrights@ Developinternationaltelecommunications,energyandtransportsectors@ Consolidate right policy climate to facilitate and institutionalize all these objectives.

3. Significance of Economic Diplomacy in the era of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG)

Economicglobalizationhasincreasinglymadeeconomicdiplomacyaprominentfactorin foreign policy. Economic progress and prosperity depend on beneficial relationship with other countriesandeachcountrywantstopenetrateintoothercountrieswithitsgoods,services,labourandinvestment.Economicdiplomacypredictstheoutcomesoffuturetraderegimesandtherefore


it needs an understanding of market factors at work in a given global economic environment.Furthermore,thereisanawarenessthateconomicdiplomacymaystriveforgreatertransparency,betterinformationandgreaterclarity.ThevitalityofeconomicdiplomacyshouldalsobeassessedintermsofthechangingforeignaidscenarioaftertheendoftheColdWarleadingtocompetitionforsuchaidamongcountriesthathadoncebelongedtotheSovietBlocs.Thegrantelementintheaid package has given place to concessionary finance or loans payable within a liberal time frame with sufficient grace period. In brief, the time for grants-in-aid has passed and LDCs like Nepal strive to receive loans from international financial institutions like the World Bank and the Asian DevelopmentBankinconcessionaryterms. Trade not aid, is the prevailing motto in economic relations among nations today. Itis undoubtedly a more powerful catalyst of sustainable development than aid. As Nepal hasobtainedthemembershipofWTOwhichcalls for increasedcapacity-building tocompetewithother trading partners in the world market, Nepal must adopt a prudent and coherent exportpolicy and mobilize its diplomatic mission towards attaining the export objectives. Investment or, for that matter, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is a crucial factor for development, as it brings capital,technologyandmarketingskills. Diplomaticmissionsshouldbeprovidedtheupdatedand bankable investment projects so that they can approach prospective investors in the countries oftheirassignment.ItispossibletoattractFDIinsuchareasashydropower,tourism,biodiversityandeducationwhereNepalhasbothcomparativeadvantageandcompetitiveedge.

4. Nepalese Context TheevolutionofNepal’seconomicdiplomacyhaditsoriginevenbeforetheadventofdemocracy in 19�1, though the approach was quite piecemeal, haphazard that lacked systematic approach. During the 18th and 19th century, Nepal simply pursued an active trade policy butdidn’tgiveprioritiestotheestablishmentsofrelationswithothercountriesoftheinternationalcommunity. This situation changed after 19�0s, marked by the desire of Nepal to strengthen its bilateralandmultilateral ties.TheopendoorpolicyofNepalalsopushedforwardtheconceptof foreign aid and loans. However, the concept of economic diplomacy was not broad andencompassinginthosedaysasitistoday. Infact,economicdiplomacytodayhasbecomeanewandcriticalcomponentofNepal’sforeign policy, and the country has been justifiably striving, in recent years, to promote it as effectivelyaspossible.Theincorporationofeconomicelementsintoforeignpolicyanddiplomaticactivities has tremendously increased to accomplish the objective of poverty eradication which is one of the most crucial agenda under the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in contemporary international relations. The efficient conduct of economic diplomacy depends to a large extent, on thedeploymentof trainedmanpowerandexpertise inalldiplomaticmissions.Thesemissionsshouldbeprovidedwithadequateresourcestoundertakepromotionalactivities.Intheday-to-dayscheduleofthemission,priorityneedstobeaccordedtothetaskofpromotingandstrengtheningeconomictieswiththecountriestowhichmissionsareassigned.Itisimportanttorememberthatsuccessfuldiplomacyseekstobridgedifferencesandwidenscommongroundtorealizeorachieveshared interests. (United Nations Development Report, 2006) Nepal’scurrentcomparativeadvantageininternationaltradeliesinitsresource-intensiveand labour-intensive product areas. More than 9�% of manufactured exports are concentrated in these categories (Nepal Trade and Competitiveness study, 2004). Nepal has already shown clearprice-marginadvantageinatleastelevenexportproductswithinherareasofcomparativeadvantage (Pyakuryal, 2004). Since Nepal is a bona fide member of WTO, SAFTA and BIMSTEC, amendments have been made compatible with globalization and liberalization in the acts andregulations pertaining to these priority areas. The membership of WTO has offered lucrative


prospects of increased market access which enhances the effectiveness and efficiency of our tradingcapacityultimately leading to thehigher levelof economicgrowthand improving thequalityofthelifeofpeople.Amongothers,Nepalhasmadeaconditionalcommitmenttoopenupsectorslikelegalservice,engineering,architecture,advertising,marketresearchandrestaurantsforattractingunprecedentedFDI.WithaccessiontotheWTO,Nepalwillnowhavetohoneitstechnical and financial capabilities to increase competitiveness and to be able to gain from the rule-basedtradingregime. NepalhasimmensepotentialsforeconomicdevelopmentthroughmobilizingtheprimefoundationsofNepaleseeconomywhichareasfollows:

Water Resources and Hydropower Bilateral, regional and international co-operation to initiate mega projects for hydropower developmentinNepalisagreatopportunity.Investmentinhydropowerissafeandsecure,withinvestment-friendlyclimatesupplementedbyappropriatelaws,regulationsandcreditfacilities.Moreover,fundingarrangementisbeingexplored;detaileddesignworksareunderwayfortheinfrastructure and access road to encourage foreign investors to launch hydropower projects in Nepal. Proper harnessing of water resources and developing hydropower will ensure bothsustainablehighgrowthandsubstantialpovertyreduction.Tourism Tourists coming to Nepal can enjoy their holiday trips with full assurance of tranquillity, security,highqualityservicesandfacilitiesasperwith the internationalstandardatacheaperrate.NepalisoftencombinedbythelonghaulconsumerwithholidaydestinationsfromIndiaandTibet.ThepossibilityofinternationalpartnershipsinmarketingtheHimalayanregionisatpresentbeingexploredandtheidealpartnershipwouldincludeTibet,asNepalisoftenitsgateway,andboth destinations are combined by tour operations. A study commissioned by ADB on SouthAsian sub-regional co-operation has identified opportunities to jointly promote eco-tourism and Buddhist circuits in Bangladesh, Bhutan, north and north-east India and Nepal. By 2020 India will be supplying almost half a million visitors to Nepal, while UK, Japan, France , North America and Australiawillemergeashighvaluemarketswhichwillbeprovidingonethirdsofthetotalvisitorsto Nepal (TRAPAP NEP 99/013).

Biodiversity Thebio-geographicalpositionofNepalisveryaptforthefactthatNepalmayclaimthewealthoftwoverylargeanddiverserealmsoftheworldi.e.,thePalaeo-arcticinthenorthernregionandtheorientalinthesouthernregion.ItslocationinthecentralsectoroftheHimalayahasfurtherenhanceditsbioclimaticdiversityduetothefactthatthemorehumidconditionoftheeasternHimalayasandthedrierwesternHimalayasinterpenetrateintoNepal.Nepal’sproximitytothetropics,anditstopographicalandaltitudinalrangefromdeepvalleystomountaincrests,create condition for the occurrence of tropical to arctic climates. There are some specific products thatcancapturethelocalmarketandcanbelinkedtothemarketsoutsideofthecountry.Theseare beekeeping and honey production, ginger, winter and summer vegetables, milk and milkproducts,poultryandmeatproductsandsub-tropicalfruits.4.1 Major Exportable Products with Comparative and Competitive Advantages Nepalhasdevelopeditscomparativeandcompetitiveadvantagesoverseveralproducts,whichareexportedtoanumberofdestinationscomprisingAsia,Europe,Africa,NorthandSouthAmerica.Theseproductsare:


Pashmina products “Pashmina”, a Nepalese word for the highest quality of wool (generally 11-14 micron, long sample fibre), is an ultra fine and exceedingly softwood or diamond fibre extracted from the body of the mountain goat “Chyangra”. The incredible softness of pashmina combined with unique and superiorproductshasincreasedthedemandforitworldwide.Themainexportproductsmadefrom pashmina are shawls, stoles, mufflers, scarves, blankets and readymade garments which are woven on a wrap of cotton. Reaping the benefits from the selling of pashmina products is a bright prospectforNepal.

Leather and leather products For the last few decades, Nepal has been producing and exporting a wide variety ofleathergoods,bothofmodernandtraditionaldesignsindifferentsizesandcolourssuchasfashionshoes and boots, jackets, trousers, travel bags, camera bags, wallets, belts, gloves, aprons etc. USA, Japan, Pakistan, Italy, Brazil, UK are the major export markets for Nepalese leather and leather products.

Nepalese Paper and Paper Products Nepalese paper made from ‘Lokta’ has its own unique features, which has tearingstrength.Loktapaperswithstand insectsand temperatureextremeswithexceptionallydurableandresistantquality.Duringoldendays,Loktapaperwasprimarilyusedformakingcalendar,kites,woodblockprinters,masks,stationerygiftwrappers,bags,greetingcards,lampshadesandprintingmaterialsforbooksandotherpublications.

Handicrafts Handicrafts are an important sector to provide employment to the vast segment ofcraftsmenandgeneratesubstantialamountofforeignexchangeinthecountry.Overtheyears,export of handicrafts has grown significantly and also has been diversified to 1�0 countries. The major handicraft products include: metal statues, ethnic costumes, traditional silver and gold jewelleries, ceramic products, stone sculptures, metal utensils, floor coverings among others.

4.2 Institutional and Procedural Constraints of Economic Diplomacy DespitethefactthatthereareampleopportunitiespresentinNepaltoadvanceitseconomicintereststhroughthetactfuldiplomacy,ithasnotbeenabletomaterializethemproperly.Somecriticalproblemshavestoodasobstaclesinthisregard:• Poor homework in the direction of export promotion and investment promotion (including

standardsofqualitycontrol)• LabourproblemsinattractingFDI• Lackofco-ordinationinpolicyandimplementationofit• Handling of appointments, transfers and promotions of the foreign ministry officials on

thebasisofpoliticalpatronageleadingtothemockeryofadministrativenorms• Paucity of funds and the status of donor-receiver relationship between the finance and

foreignministries.• Roleofforeignministrynotbeingproactiveduetopoorinter-agencyco-ordination• Lacklustreprivatesectorrole• No appointment of right person on the basis of KAP (Knowledge, Aptitude and Practice)

butonthebasisofnepotismandfavouritism• Weaklinkagesbetweenthegovernmentandtheacademicthink-tanksandlackofeffective

tie-upsbetweenacademicinstitutionsandbusinessorganizations


4.3 Strategies to Promote Economic Diplomacy Economicdiplomacyisnotaperiodicplanorprogramme.Itisapartoftheintegratedforeign policy of Nepal. At this juncture, it is crucial to understand that economic diplomacy cannot succeedonlywiththeeffortofthegovernment.Thebusinesscommunitymustbeproactiveiftheyare to get mutually benefited from the advancement of economic diplomacy. The private sector must come up with innovative policies and enhance their competitiveness, so that the overalleconomyofthecountrycanbedirectedtowardsthepathofsustainableprogressandprosperity.VariousfactorsaretobetakenintoconsiderationtofosterNepal’seconomicdiplomacy.

A. Missions TheroleofNepalesemissionabroadistocommunicateproperlywiththehostgovernmentthat Nepal as a developing country with meagre financial, economic and infrastructural base needs foreignaidandinvestmentfortheexpansionofsocialcapitalinthecountry.TheMinistryofForeignAffairsshouldprovideadequatetrainingsanddevelopmentprogrammestotheemployeesofthemissionssothattheycanimprovetheirnegotiatingskillsandtackleotherproblemsthatmightoccurintheduecourseofpursuingeconomicdiplomacy.

B. Effective coordination between embassies and consular offices All Nepalese embassies and consular offices should have a list of errand in Nepal, link with hotelsoragenciessoastodeveloptheircontactswithNepaleseagency.InordertodisseminateadequateinformationaboutNepal’srichculturalandnaturaldiversity,variousprogrammessuchasseminars,exhibitions,andtalk-showsamongothersneedtobeconductedinthepremisesofNepalesemissionsabroad.

C. Focus countries Itisveryimportanttoidentifythepotentialcountriesforthepromotionofourproducts.For instance, the prospective markets for our primary products are USA, Germany, UK, Japan and India.Holland,Spain,ItalyandAustraliaareinthesecondlist.Thiswillhelpinconcentratingourefforts forboostingupexport tradeandachieving the targetsof economicdiplomacy inasustainablemanner.

D. Honorary Consuls The selection of honorary consuls must be based upon meritorious criteria such aseducational qualification, professional experiences etc. They should be trained to improve their innovativeskillsandknowledgebase.Apoliticalpersonalitieswithproventrackrecordsshouldbeentrustedwiththetaskofadvancingtheeconomicprioritiesofthecountry.

E. Country Specific and Product Specific Programmes Nepal should categorize the countries and cities on the basis of strategy for foreignemploymentandcitiesforexportinggoods.Aclearideaaboutthepotentialmarketsshouldbeinourmindandweshouldbeabletocatertotheuniqueneedsofdifferentcountries.Withoutaproperassessmentofthisissue,ourdiplomaticefforttoimprovethecountry’seconomyislikelytosufferfromahugesetback.

F. Strengthening the Institute of Foreign Affairs (IFA) IFAshouldbeempoweredbyensuringthemeaningfulrepresentationsofex-ambassadorsanddiplomatsinthisinstitutionwhichwillassistintheknowledgeandexperiencesharinginthefield of diplomacy including economic and political diplomacy. The role of IFA should be more


focusedonconductingextensiveresearch,preparingtermpapersandinitiatingpolicydialoguesrather thanmerelyprovidingorientation trainings to themembersofForeignServicewhoaregoingtoserveinthemissionabroad.

5. Conclusion Collaborative commitment and devotion to overcome the challenges of economicdiplomacy is the need of the hour. In the same way, identification of potential countries on priority basisisequallyurgentforfurtherpromotionofprivateinvestments,employmentopportunities,export trade and official developmental assistance. To make the foreign office more creative and efficient, MOFA may initiate reconstruction of the whole apparatus so that it will be well-equipped tograpplethechallengesandeventualitiesthatlieaheadinthesuccessfulconductofoureconomicdiplomacy.Moreover,itisimperativetofocusonhydropowerpotentials,handicrafts,andherbalproducts to earn more foreign currency for the country. And finally MOFA should make effective co-ordinationbetweenthelineministries,apexbusinessorganizationlikeFNCCI,CNIandalsotake the NGOs/ INGOs in confidence, which are working for the socio-economic transformation ofoursociety.

ReferencesBhatt, D.D. (2006), Comments on Biodiversity and Conservation Strategy for Nepal, inDahal,

Madan Kumar et al. (ed). Environmental and Sustainable Development: Issues in Nepalese Perspective,Kathmandu:NEFAS/FES.

Dahal, Madan Kumar (2009), Nepalese Economy: Toward Building A Strong Economic Nation-State,Kathmandu:CentralDepartmentofEconomics,NewHiraBooksEnterprises.

Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry (2007), Nepal and the World : A Statistical Profile, 2007. Kathmandu, FNCCI.

Institute of Foreign Affairs (2002), Report of the Policy Study Group on Nepal’s Economic Diplomacy,Kathmandu:IFA/MOFA.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2008), A Concise Memorandum of Economic Diplomacy in Nepal,Kathmandu : MOFA Secretariat, March 13.

Nepal Chamber of Commerce (2007), Trade Directory,Kathmandu:NCC.Ojha, Pursottam (2007), Making Trade Work for Poor: A Case from Nepal,APaperPresentedat

University of Adelaide, Australia.Pyakuryal, Bishwambher (2004), Comparative and Competitive Advantages of Nepal: Issues in

the Integration of Industrial Activities and Regional Cooperation,APaperpreparedforIndustry and Technology division of UN/ESCAP, Bangkok.

Shrestha, Lochan (2010), Cutting Edge of Foreign Policy: Knowing About Economic Diplomacy,Kathmandu:RatnaPustakBhandar.

Websites www.ediplomat.comwww.ifa.org.npwww.mofa.gov.np


Poverty Alleviation in Nepal : The Role of Co-operatives

Dr. Sabitri Aryal (Acharya)*

Introduction: The role of financial institution in poverty alleviation is very crucial. This study has assessed and analyzed the role of some of the major programmes of various banking institutions forthesame.TherearemanybankinginstitutionsinNepalbothincommercialanddevelopmentsectorswhichhavebeenputtingsubstantialeffortsinmanagingruralpovertyinNepal.Oneofthe important institutions isSFCL.However,SFCLis the largestone,whichhasbeenworkingbasically for rural people. The study has pointed out some problems in particularly related tosustainability.ThestudyfoundoutthatSFCLissomehowfoundasustainableprogrammeonlyinitsintegratedsense. SFCL is a poverty alleviation programme implemented by Agricultural DevelopmentBank Limited, Nepal (ADBLN). It organizes small farmers into groups, who have been involved insmallbusinessesatthevillagelevelinagriculturalandcottageindustrieswhoselandholdingis small, who are tenants, share croppers, fishermen, landless labourers engaged in the rural industries and other skilled labourers whose per head annual income is very low. Therefore,thisSFCLemphasizesonamelioratingsocio-economicconditionofruralwomenpopulaces.Thegroup comprises �-10 small farmers who have similar type of problems, interest, economic status, and are settled in similar location. For the socio-economic development, more than 294 SFCLs are implemented in all over the country. Among these, (Small Farmer Co-operative Limited) SFCL Raviwopiisone,whichhasbeenimplementedinKaveredistrictofNepal. Therefore, the study has proposed some measures for promoting financial institutions in amorepoor-participatingmanner. It’s considered as a major catalytic component to ADBLN in developing socio-economic infrastructure, generating employment opportunities, transferring improved technology anddeveloping agricultural and cottage industries in rural Nepal particularly benefiting the poorest ofthepoor. SFCL has still relevance in the Nepalese perspective that should be emphasized infuture as well. To ensure the participation of needy and real poor, dedicated and the “politically sophisticated” (a credit to the rural poor is not only a technical type of issue rather it is guided by social power relation as well. There is always a possibility of flow of cheap loan like targeted credit tothemedium&largefarmerswhoareeitherasourceofpowerorhavetherelationshipwiththepowerfuleliteinthecanter.Similarly,creditisalsooftendirectedatsecuringpoliticalpatronage.Inthefaceoftheserealities,thekingpinsofSFCLhavetobeawareinordertostopnon-smallandnon-poor farmers taking advantage from the project.)

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However, there are two major constraints: first, the continuous dependence on donors for confessionalfundsandsecond,theissueofmaintainingqualityandprofessionalismoftheSFCLstaff. So,themagnitudeoftheproblemandthescaleofinterventionnecessaryforachievingmeaningfulimpactaretoobigtobeabletosolveonlythroughSFCL.Lackofinvestmentopportunitiesresultedinbecauseofthelackoftransport,markets,andofmagnetizedruraleconomyratherthancreditisthebindingconstraintintheNepalesecasewhiledealingwithpoverty.Itfurtheraddsthatintheabsenceofthesefacilities,itisunlikelytobethepoorwhowillbeinapositiontotakeadvantageofcredit. ReferringtotheWorldBank’sview,theauthorhasanopinionthatthebasicinfrastructureslikeroadandtransportation,marketsandruralmagnetizedeconomycannotbecreatedovernight.Itshouldbethelong-termstrategy.TheconditionoftheNepalesepoorissovulnerablethattheyneed immediate relief, which is possible from credit like SFCL. It can still be one of the goodmeans tomanagepovertybutkeeping inviewof themagnitudeof theproblem,SFCLshouldnotbe,however,thewholeandsolemeasuretocombatruralpovertyinanationalscale.Otherappropriatemeasuresshouldalsobeadoptedwithdueattention.Insuchmeasures,participationofthepoorpeopleshouldhighlybeemphasized. “The massive scale of poverty requires direct and intensive involvement of the poor themselves as subjects in identifying and applying appropriate solutions for their problems. Statedevelopmentagenciescouldplayeffectiveroleincreatingconductiveenvironmentandinestablishingsensitivesupportmechanismthatenablethepoortofacetheproblemandovercomeconditions of poverty and deprivation in incremental steps”(ibid.). Above these discussions, it can be concluded that, there are number of other externalvariables/factors,suchaslackofinfrastructurelocalmarketcenters,lackofcoordinationbetweengovernmentlineagenciesetc.responsibleforlowperformance/achievement,poorrepaymentrateandhighoperatingcostratioetc. Althoughnoneof the incomegeneratingpovertymanagementCo-operative limited isfoundsustainableinanaccountingsense,SFCListheonlyprogramme,whichisfoundsustainableinitsintegratedsense.However,theroleofthisinstitutioninpovertyalleviationprogrammeisvery crucial. Despite of many problems, commercial banking institutions are making a significant contribution in priority sector (Rural area). SFCL is the example of target group- cum- gender specific programme in Nepal. Moreover, there are some of the highly successful financial institutions inpovertyalleviation inAsia.GrameenBankofBangladesh,SEWABank in India,BAACofThailandandSFCLinNepalaresomeofthebrilliantexamples.However,theroleofADBLNinthisregardisquitecrucialandpivotalinNepal.Buttherearestilllotsofproblemsandquestionsaboutsustainabilityoftheprogramme.Itseemsthatcommercialbankinginstitutionshavetomakefurthereffortsandinvestmoreinprioritysectorinmoresustainableway.TheroleofADBLN in initiating Institutional Development Program (IDP) by establishing Small Farmer Co-operative limited (SFCL) is quite appreciable in this regard. This is the exit point of SFCL, which makestheprogrammesustainableinalongrun.SofarasthecomparisonofSFCLofNepalwithARPofBangladeshisconcerned,itisfoundoutthatARPBangladeshisquitemoreeffectivethanSFCLfromvariouspointsofview,suchaswomenparticipation,repaymentrate,savingstrategyetc. But SFCL as such, is found sustainable one from the viewpoint of integrated approach ofsustainability. Since,ruralcreditishighlyriskyandcostly;commercialbanksarealwaysreluctanttogoin this sector due to very high overhead cost. Because of the high overhead cost, formal financial institutions working in this sector are suffering a lot. They are not financially viable and hence are notsustainableprogrammefrombankingpointofview.Formalbankinginstitutionsaredisbursing


asubstantialamountasruralcredit.Theirroleinsupplyingcreditiscrucialandpivotal.Justasknowledgeandorganizationispower;creditisalsoapower,whichultimatelyleadstopovertyalleviation.Althoughtheroleofbankinginstitutionsinalleviatingpovertybymeansofsoftloandelivery is important, the programmes and projects working with this sector are not sustainable and financially viable from banking point of view. The Micro credit (SFCL) provided credit to women from 1992/93. This SFCL is an example offormalcreditmodel,especiallyfocusedonsustainablesavingandcreditforultrapoorwomen.Itisbasedonlendingonsingleandgroupapproaches. The study wasbasically focusedongender issuesand situation analysis ofwomen inmicro-creditprogramme.Womenarefacingsomanyproblemsgettingloanincollateralsystem.Therearelotsofdisparitiesonallocationofresourceswithinhouseholds.Womenareunabletogetloanandgetlesstechnicalsupport.ThestrengtheningstructuresofSFCLissmallloanandtheirrepaymentinmonthlyinstalmentbasisandreinforcingco-ordinationandconsolidationofformalcreditmodel,howeverprovidingloantowomenisnotenough.Theimportantthingis,controlovertheproductiveresourcesshouldbegiventowomen.Loansunderwomen’snamedonotmeantheymanageandmakealldecisionsfortheirutilization.Therefore,womenhavetobeempoweredtoacertainextentincapabilitybuilding,activeparticipationindecision-makingwithinhouseholdandoutsideincommunity,inpublicaffairsandinvolvementinthelocalmarkets.Theresearcherhasfurtherrecommendedsomestrategiesforpoverty-management.

Objectives of the Study The overall objective of the study was to analyse and assess the study and role of banking institutions in poverty alleviation in Nepal to empower women. Specifically, the study focuses on the following objectives:

1 Make general assessment of the efficacy of banking institution in serving the rural poor;2 Analyze and assess the role of Small Farmer Co-operative Limited (SFCL) of ADBL/N

moreespeciallyfromtheviewpointofachievementandoperationalperformance;3 Assess poverty alleviation programme of different banking institutions; 4 Compare SFCL of Nepal to ARP, Grameen bank of Bangladesh;� Assess borrower’s perception in SFCL, especially its credit delivery system;6 Identify impact on household income by women’s involvement in SFCL programme

and7 Recommend some useful policy measures and strategies to the Government and banking

institutionsforpovertyAlleviationinNepal.

Scope & Limitations of the study There are many other financial institutions in Nepal working in informal and non-banking sectors. Some of them are finance companies, credit co-operatives, contractual savinginstitutionsandNGOsetc.however;thisstudyisconcentratedonlyintheformalbankingsector (excluding the role of non-banking sector as mentioned above) emphasizing the role of SFCLofAgriculturalDevelopmentBankLimitedofNepal.Theonlyadmirablereasonbehindemphasizing SFCL is that ADBL/N, the parent organization of SFCL, has major share and pivotal roleinpovertymanagementprogrammeinNepal. Raviwopi VDC is one of the villages among 87 VDCs in kavere District of Nepal. This VDC covers and works for 9 wards. Owing to the topographic, temporal, financial and human resources constraints and limitations, this study has concentrated on only one project among 294 projects in Nepal (SFCL, ADBL/N, 2010). It encompasses mainly the agricultural development of small farmers (largely women) and their empowerment through micro-credit supply.


Researcher wanted to make some analysis of gender issues on credit performance bytakingwomensamplefromthosewards.Furthermore,thegeneralsocio-economicconditionsofthepeoplearealsoanalyzedbypersonalobservationsoastoevaluateindirectimpact. As set out in its objectives, this study examined the gender specific contribution to household by studying gender division of labour indifferent (agricultural and household) activities. ThisstudyisrepresentingonlytheformalbankingsectorofNepalespeciallysmallgroupof people from middle mountain region of the country. Therefore, the findings, conclusion and recommendations presented herein are useful mainly for the formal banking institutions thathavebeenmanagingpovertyalleviationprogrammesinNepaltoempowerwomen.Hencethefindings, conclusion and recommendations are not generalized in any case.

Methodology:Research Design Inordertomakethestudymoreexploratory;bothqualitativeandquantitativeresearchdesignsarefollowed.Dataandinformationweregatheredmainlyfromprimarysourcesemployingdifferent research instruments including Participatory Rural Appraisal-PRA (via; focus group discussionand informalworkshop).Mostof thedataand informationweregathered throughgroupdiscussionandpersonalinterview.Thenecessaryinformationiscollectedfromprimaryandsecondarysources.Thevariousmethodsappliedtoaccomplishthisstudyaredescribedinthischapter.

Selection of Study Area ThestudyareaselectedisRaviwopi.Mostofthewomenaresubsistencefarmersandsomearecommercializedfarmersgrowingcropsfortheirconsumption,withsmallamountofsurplusfoodsoldtolocalcityBanepaandbigcityKathmandu.Thisareahasbeenselectedforthestudy,asnosucheffortshavebeenmadeinthepastinthisarea.Itisnotveryfarfromthecapitalcitytoo. Thestudyanalyzedgender issues inmanagingpoverty throughmicrocredit for ruralwomen, largely based on the SFCL form of credit model programme for management andsustainabledevelopment.Inviewoftimeandresourcelimits,eightcasestudieswereundertakeninonevillageselectedfromRaviwopiVDCwheretheSFCLwaslocated.TheSelectionwasbasedon the information obtained from different (Secondary, key informants researcher’s experience) sources.

Sampling design The household level was considered as the unit of analysis according to the needassessment data from primary source i. e. socio-economic status of household, income, landholdingsize. The selection of respondents was woman. The total number of respondents was 40. In generallargedifferenceineducationandlivingstandardexistsinNepalamongrespondentsofdifferentcategories.Theprimaryreasonofselectinghouseholdswithsubstantialdiversitywastoevaluatethepatternsofparticipation,education,andinvolvementindecision-makingamonghouseholdsofdifferentbackgrounds. Thus, the sample size of this study was 40. Respondents in the village were observed in four clusters, each representing people from a particular sub- caste (e. g. Poudel village representing sub-caste of Brahmin; Thakuri village (Ganu) representing sub-caste of chetteri; and Pangrang village representing sub-caste of lower (Baisya, Sudra) caste like Damai, Newar, Sarki and Kami). From each cluster 10/10 respondents were selected for household survey from one VDC. Thestratifiedrandom sampling method wasfollowed.


The respondentsNumber of the Respondent

Women

Raviwopi VDC 40 40

Total 40 40

Questionnaire: The content of the questionnaire intends (aims) to collect information on production, productivity,income,expenditure,livingcondition,educationstatus,assetstructure,employment,croppingpatternandlandholdingsizeofrespondents,roleofmicro-creditforwomen,genderdivisionoflabour,controlovertheresourceswithinthehouseholdandoutside,participationinthe project, financial activities and decision making at home and outside and their agricultural activities.Similarly,thequestionnaireattemptstogetinformationalsoonrespondents’opinionregardingtheirproblems/futurecourseofagriculturalandotheractivities.

Testing of Questionnaire: Apre-testofquestionnairewasconductedamongtherespondentofRaviwopiVillage.(kavere District). It provided useful feedback for further improvement. For the real information, some questions were modified, some were deleted and some more were added for collecting the intendedinformation.

Data collection: Data and information are collected mainly through field reconnaissance survey, focus group discussions, personal interviews, direct personal observation, and surprise visit andsecondarysources.AreconnaissancevisitofstudyareawasconductedtogetbasicinformationonthesituationofRaviwopiVillageDevelopmentCommitteeandtogetintroducedtolocalpeopleduringinitialvisit.ThechairpersonoftheVDCandchairpersonsofotherdifferentorganizationsweremetasitwasnecessarytomakefurthercontactswithrespondentsthroughthem.Afterthat,thestandardquestionnairesandinterviewchecklistwerepreparedforthehouseholdsurvey.Prior to designing the questionnaire, a co-ordination schema (pattern/diagram) was prepared showingtheselectedparametersandtheircorrespondingvaluesandvariables.Basedontheco-ordinationschema,asetofstructuredquestionnaireandchecklistwerepreparedinEnglishandsubsequentlytranslatedintoNepaleselanguagetogathertheinformationofproblems.

Primary Data collectionHousehold survey Household survey was carried out with structured questionnaire. Forty householdsurveyswerecarriedout.Allrespondentsofthehouseholdsurveywerewomen.Onewomanperhousehold was identified as one respondent of the household. A criterion was used for the selection ofhouseholdsurveyrespondents.TherespondentwomenwereloanborrowersofSFCL’smicrocreditprogrammewhohadcompletedoneyearofburrowingperiod.

In -depth interview / Case Study In-depth interview was conducted with 40 selected women. During this in-depth interview,particularemphasiswasgiven toexplorehowwomenweremanaging the loanandwhethertheintroductionofagriculturalproductionsystemhadsolvedthefoodandhouseholdscarcity.Inparticular,itwastriedtoexploretheaccessibilitytoformalcreditsystemandroleof


micro credit for rural women of the project site, the information on socio-economic condition, role of micro credit (SFCL) for women, gender division of labour, the situation of resources allocation and control over them within the household and outside, women’s participation in the project and their decision making within and outside household were collected through interviews in 40 households. EightselectedcasestudieswereconductedfromthatVDC.Thecasestudywasselectedfromamongthesuccessandfailurecasesof micro-creditprogrammeinwomen’sgroup,regardingthe conditionsbeforeandafterborrowing the loan, about the changes ingender relationsandchangesinlivingconditionsetc. Furthermore, thebarrierswomenare facing toparticipate in theagriculturalactivitiesandwhethertheirinteresthasbeentakenintoconsiderationintheagriculturalactivitiesornotwerealsotakenintoconsideration.

Focus group discussion Focus group discussions were carried out with 4 groups of loan borrower farmer women and the office staffs. Four women groups of 10/10 were selected from one VDC. A checklist was usedforthegroupdiscussionstocollecttheinformation.Allgroupswereaskedaboutwhatwere their perception, roles and responsibility about the project activities and constrains for women’s participation in project.

Observation Observationwasmadeinthehouseholdstoknowtheroleandresponsibilitiesofmenandwomen in the family and to find out the activities, which they were doing by investing the loan.Moreover,womenandmenactivitiesinagriculture;participationinon-farm,off-farmproductionactivitiesandhouseholdactivities,theirroleandresponsibilitieswereobserved.Theirparticipationinsocialandculturalactivities,womenincomegenerationgroup,discussionandinvolvementinthetrainingprogrammewerealsoobservedandanalyzed.

PRA Method PRAmethodwasusedtoobtaindemographicinformationandsocioeconomicconditionsof 40 households. The PRA method was conducted among the family members.

Secondary data collection: Secondary information was collected from various sources. Most of the data werecollected from Agriculture Development Bank office of Kavere district, district development committee, village development committee of Raviwopi, small farmers’ co-operative limited,Raviwopi co-operative office, department of agriculture, ministry of agriculture etc. The basic data wasobtainedfromareportofRaviwopi.TheotherinformationofAgricultureDevelopmentBankLimited (ADBL/N), Government Organizations (GOs), Non-Government Organization (NGOs), andInternationalNon-GovernmentOrganizationswerealsoappliedintheprocessofstudying.Beside this, textbook, articles, national and international periodicals, journals magazines, conference papers, country presentation papers, various publications, newspapers, annualreports, publications of Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) and National Planning Commission (NPC), progress reports, research papers etc. were the other main sources of information. Internet wassurfedinobtaininginformationaspernecessity.The research was done primarily on the basis of secondary data form statistical. A systematicapproachwasfollowedforinformation.ThereviewofsecondarydatawasdonetoselectthestudyareaandtorelatethepolicyandstrategyforpovertyalleviationofruralwomeninNepal.


Method of Data Processing and Data Analysis: Asitisacasestudy,qualitativeanalysisbasedonpersonalobservationandfocusgroupdiscussions has been made. However, using SPSS, some quantitative analysis have done. Theinformation collected has been analyzed by using simple statistics such as frequencies, mean,percentages,standarddeviationandvarianceetc.Simultaneously,thequalitativeinformationfromfield observations and interviews has been processed to explain some of the results of quantitative information.

Findings: InRaviwopiVDC,every femalewasamemberofoneorothergroups likeSFCLandco-operative offices. Women were more engaged in this type of credit. The women of that village establishedsavingandcreditprogrammeandmobilized it.Womenweremoreactive ineveryaspectoftheirlifeandweremoreindependent.Womenweremoreawareofthebankingrulesandregulation. But 91% of them did not have full knowledge about the bank’s rules and regulations. 80% women’s loan was not used directly by the women themselves it was utilized by the male of the family (their husband, son or son- in- law) due to which they never had tension of repayment cases and 80% of loan borrowers of that village were illiterate, they didn’t know how to utilize and mobilize loan. Women regularly repaid their loan in time. Only 1�% of women knew about bank’s rules and regulations. These 1�% of loan borrowers were educated up to class 10 and some even hadappearedforS.L.C.andtheirhusbandswerealsomoreeducatedthanofothers. TheSFCLhasprovidedloanforfemaleinsmallamountforgoatrising,andbuffaloraisingpurposesbutformaleloanwasprovidedforrunningmillsortoopenshopswhichrequiredlargeamountofmoney. SFCLhassomepositiveimpactonwomen’sempowermentandhelpedthemincrisesforshortterm.Ithasalsoemphasizedontargetingwomenformicrocreditprogrammesinordertoimprovewomen’saccesstomaterialresourcesandtheircontroloverit.Womenconstitutemorethanhalfofthepopulationandarethebackboneofthesociety.So,theycannotbeignored,howevertheyfacedlotsofproblemlikesecuringcreditthoughitislegallyaccessible.Loansandcreditsgiventowomenhaveprovedtobeofhigherrateofrepayment.Empowermentofwomenwillultimatelybenefit their families, communities’ and country’s economy. Women will no longer have to be dependent.So,economicempowermentisdecisivecriteriafortheadvancementofwomen.Duetoinequalitybetweenmaleandfemaleaboutgettingfacilitieslikeeducation,healthcare,nutritionand their less access to productive resources like credit, has made their contribution invisibleregardingeconomicalsituation.Womanborrowerneedscollateraltoobtainloan.Aswomenhavelimited control over property and poor access to institutional services and facilities restrictingthemtheyhaveovercomethisbarrierbyimprovingtheirability,capacitiesandskillsinincomegeneratingandsocioeconomicstanding.So,theestablishmentofcreditnetworksprogrammehasassisted and supported business skills, training sessions on business and financial management forseveralhundredwomenentrepreneurstorunbusinesssuccessfully.SFCLhaspositiveimpactonfamilyplanning,schooling,foodintakeandpropensitytobesaved.Ithasempoweredsocietyover which 90% of beneficiaries are women, and helped to break down barriers that prevent rural women. Thereare lotsof interferences inwomenempowerment likediscrimination in right toproperty, use of credit and benefit. SFCL has especially benefited women in their empowerment. Aroundtheworld,morewomenliveinabsolutepovertythanmenandthatimbalancecontinuestogrowascomparedtoformalsectorwherewomenplayimportantrole.Intheinformalsector36% of women are being engaged


The participatory approaches of micro credit project have together emphasized on womenentrepreneursandemploymentcreation;haverisentohopesofreducingpoverty.SFCLis established in broader that contains a particular place for support in small (business) enterprise sector.Ithastheimportanceofimprovingaccessestocreditforsmallrurallandlessfarmersandotherpeoplewithlowornoincome; likewiseitprovidesaccesstowomen,disadvantagedandvulnerablegroups. ThecreditaccessibilityinSFCLtowomenworksveryhardbutreceiveslowreturnwhererepayment rate is high. Their direct participation as group member is still less than 20% of the total members. Therearemanyfactorsbehindlowparticipationofwomensuchas:lackofinvolvementindecisionmaking,lackofcontrolovertheeconomicresources,lengthyprocesstoobtainloan,illiteracy,conservativesociety,manastheheadofhousehold,lackoftrainingandskill,lackoftheirorganization,lackofriskbearingcapacityetc.SFCLishelpingtoruralwomentoincreasethroughcredit.SFCLhasbeenstronglycommittedtoalleviateproblemsofpoor,particularlythelowincomeanddeprivedwomen.However,utilizationofcreditismuchhigherinwomencomparedtomen.Womenweremorecautiousandpunctualaboutloaninvestmentandre-payment.Mainlywomenusedcreditforagriculturalandbusinesspurposeswhichincreasedtheirworkload;neverthelesstheirwillingness tochange theirsituationwassupportedandappreciatedbySFCL.The livingstandardofpoorpeoplewaspermanentlyraisedbymakingthemindependent. References Acharya, J. (1994), Rural Credit and Women Empowerment, Case Study of the Janashakiti

Program in Hambantota District, Srilanka, AIT thesis, HS 1994-�.Acharya, Y. (1998), An Evaluation of The Small Farmers Development Program in The Hills of

Nepal Management By Agricultural Development Bank of Nepal.ThesisPublishedByAIT,Bangkok,Thailand.

Adams, W. Dale and Nehman, G.I., Borrowing Costs and the Demand for Rural Credit, TheJournal of Development Studies, vol. 1�, 1981.

Ahmad, Muhammad Ijaj (1994), District Credit Plan for Rural Toba tek Singh Project,AITthesisNo. HS-94-6.

Angela.M & Et.al. (1993 March), The Grameen Bank Approach By the Poverty Through Credit, The Asian Experience in Replicating the Grameen Bank Approach,KuolaLumpur:APCO(Asian Public Development Centre).

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ADB/MAP (1990), Asian Development Bank: Appraisal of the Third Small Farmers Development Projects in Nepal.Manila,Philippines.

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Bajagain, D. (1986), Performance and Impact of priority sector Credit Program in Nepal,AIT,Thesis no. HS 86-�, Bangkok.

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Decentralization in Nepal: Review of Fiscal Decentralization Policy

Namaraj Ghimire

Abstract This term paper is fundamentally intending to explain the effort made by Nepal for the implementation of Fiscal Decentralization policy. The paper is focusing on the legal provisions made in past for this policy agenda and the new challenges with the process of making new Nepal in present context. Nepal is under the way of transformation from its 240 years from more Unitary State system to Federal State through recently elected Constitutional Assembly. In this transitional period, there is void in the policy agenda, but whether the state would be Unitary or Federal in nature, the issues of decentralization would not be in low priority because, it is the most democratic and vital for the accountability of the government in delivering the public service to the people.

Introduction Decentralizationforpastoneandhalfdecadesorsohasbecomethemostfavoredpolicypriorityamongthepolicymakers.Decentralizationisthetransferofauthorityandresponsibilityfromthecentralgovernmenttothelocalgovernmentsandtheempowermentofpeoplethroughtheir local governments (Boex et al., 200�). The importance of decentralization around the world is obvious as 9� percent of democracies have elected sub-national governments (World Bank, 2000). In fact there is a vast literature on different meanings and types of decentralization, there aremainlyfourcategoriesofdecentralization;Politicaldecentralization,Fiscaldecentralization,Administrative decentralization and Economic decentralization (Bhatta Bhim Dev, 1990). Among them, fiscal decentralization has been the crucial issue, as it is directly related with the capacity buildupofthelocalgovernmentandsoforthenhancesthedemocraticpoliticalregime. Fiscal decentralization is one of the topics that have been discussed in economics andpolicy literature by many. Fiscal decentralization, or the transfer of fiscal power from the national government to sub-national governments, is seen as a part of a reform package to improve efficiency inthepublicsector,toincreasecompetitionamongsub-nationalgovernmentsindeliveringpublicservices, and to stimulate economic growth (Bahl and Linn, 1992 and Bird and Wallich, 1993). Fiscaldecentralizationandlocalgovernanceplayanincreasinglyimportantroleinassuringsoundpublic policy and democratic governance around the world. By yielding greater expenditure-related responsibilities to regional and local governments, the public sector can be more flexible in responsetovariationsinregionalandlocalneedsanddemandsforpublicservices.Inaddition,bygivinglocalgovernmentsrealresponsibilityforthedeliveryoflocalgovernmentservicesandbyallowinglocalgovernmentstoraisetheirownsourcerevenues,localcommunitiesarebetterabletoholdtheirlocalgovernmentsaccountablefortheservicesthattheydeliver.Fundingofsub-national


governmentswithformula-basedintergovernmentaltransferscanfurtherenhancetheequityandtransparency of the system of intergovernmental fiscal relations. Fiscal decentralization studies theaspectsofhowpublicgoodsandservicesareprovidedbyregionaland localgovernmentsin a government system. There are four pillars of fiscal decentralization: First, the assignment of expenditure responsibilities; second, the assignment of revenue sources to sub-nationalgovernments; third, the provision of intergovernmental fiscal transfers (or grants), and the fourth, the framework for local government borrowing and debt (Bhatta Bhim Dev, 1990). Fiscal decentralization has been one of the major interests of economists, developmentFiscal decentralization has been one of the major interests of economists, development specialists,multilateraldevelopmentagenciesandthegovernmentsoflessdevelopedcountries(LDCs) since 1970s (Waller and Phillips, 1997). It has been considered as one of the more effective toolsofattainingeconomicgrowthandloweringofpovertyinthedevelopingcountries.Numerousstudies have dealt with decentralization and its effect on economic growth. First, Zhang and Zou (1996) have used the expenditure measure in their study of the impact of fiscal decentralization on economic growth of China. They have concluded that a higher degree of fiscal decentralization causes a lower degree of economic growth. The negative effect was observed from 1978 to 1992. The expenditure and revenue ratios for a country do not necessarily tell the same story (Pragna Halder, 2007). In fact, fiscal decentralization cannot be analyzed without taking into account as to whichparticularshadeorvariantofitweareattemptingtoinvestigatedependingonhowitmixeswithotherkindsofdecentralizationssuchaspolitical,administrativeandmarketdecentralizationin a particular historical-cultural-institutional context. Recent studies, examining the relationbetween fiscal decentralization and economic growth, have failed to take account of the extent of theindependenttaxingpowersavailabletosub-nationalgovernments.Andthishassubstantiallyoverstatedthedegreeofeffectivedecentralization.

Decentralization in Nepal ThepracticeofdecentralizationinNepalisalmostfourdecadesold.ThismakesitperhapstheoldestdecentralizationprocessinSouthAsia.Thestatutorylocalgovernmentinstitutionswerecreated as early as 1962 immediately after the replacement of the multi-party democratic system with the so-called party-less Panchayat system in 1960 through a royal takeover. Since then, severalintermittenteffortshavebeenmadetostrengthentheseinstitutionsindifferentwaysandin different times, often sailing with political waves. With the popular political movement of 1990 which restored multi-party democracy in Nepal, Nepal's decentralization policy was brought in the forefrontofnationalagendaofreformsandcontinuestobethemainmeanstotranslatedemocracyand development at the grass-root bodies. Consequently, District Development Committee,Municipality, and Village Development Committee Acts were passed in 1992 re-establishing local government institutions at the district, town, and village bodies (Manoj Shrestha, 2002). Thereafter, the Local Self Governance Act was passed in 1999 as an umbrella Act for the implementation of devolutionanddecentralization.

Principles and Policies of Local Self-Governance Act 1999: Local Self Governance Act 1999 has been developed according to the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 1990. The Interim Constitution of Nepal 2006 has also incorporated the fundamentalprincipleofdecentralization,pursuingthefollowingprinciplesandpoliciesforthedevelopmentoflocalself-governancesystem:(a) Devolution of such powers, responsibilities, and means and resources as are required to

make the local bodies capable and efficient in local self-governance. (b) Building and developing of institutional mechanism and functional structure in local

bodiescapableofconsideringforlocalpeopleandbearingresponsibilities.


(c) Devolutionofpowerstocollectandmobilizesuchmeansandresourcesasarerequiredtodischargethefunctions,duties,responsibilityandaccountabilityconferredtothelocalbodies.

(d) Having the local bodies oriented towards establishing the civil society based on democratic process, transparent practice, public accountability, and people's participation, in carrying outthefunctionsdevolvedonthem.

(e) For the purpose of developing local leadership, arrangement of effective mechanism to makethelocalbodyaccountabletothepeopleinitsownareas.

(f) Encouraging the private sector to participate in local self-governance in the task of providingbasicservicesforsustainabledevelopment

Fundamental objectives of Local Self-Governance Act (LSGA) 1999 The Local Self-Governance Act (LSGA) of 1999 sets out the following goals of decentralizationinNepal:

• grassrootparticipatoryplanningbyallincludingethniccommunities,indigenouspeopleandsociallyandeconomicallybackwardgroups;

• balanceddistributionofthefruitsofdevelopment;• strengtheninggovernanceandservicedeliverycapacityoflocalbodies;• co-ordinates development efforts among government, donors, non-governmental

organizations,civilsocietyandprivatesectors;• enhances cost effectiveness and service efficiencies;• developmentoflocalleadershipandaccountabilityoflocalbodiestolocalpeople;• Privatesectorparticipationinprovidingbasicservicesforsustainabledevelopment.

Thetwo-tierlocalgovernancesystemismadeupofthevillagedevelopmentcommittee(VDC) and the district development committee (DDC). Every VDC has nine wards, each with a five-member elected committee, including at least one woman member. The nearly 4 000 VDCs in the country’s 7� districts have been given the responsibility by the LSGA for implementing basichealtheducationandsanitationprogrammes,runningprimaryschoolsandliteracyclassesaswellascommunityhealthcenters.Thelocalbodiescarryoutmostoftheiractivitiesthroughusergroups,community-basedorganizationsandcommunityorganizations.

Functions, Duties and Powers of the elected council in local bodies: Thefunctions,dutiesandpowersoftheelectedcouncilindifferentbodiesofgovernment(Village Council, Municipal Council and District Council) have been described in article 26 in Local Self Governance Act 1999. The functions duties and powers regarding the fiscal and economic sectorhavebeenanalyzedasfollows:-(a) To pass the budgets, plans and programmes submitted by the Village Development

Committee.(b) To adopt the resolutions relating to levying and collecting of taxes, charges, fees, levies

etc.proposedbytheVillageDevelopmentCommittee.(c) To adopt the resolutions relating to the raising of loans or selling or disposing or

transferringofimmovablepropertiesproposedbytheVillageDevelopmentCommittee.(d) To discuss on the irregularities determined by the audit report of the Village Development

Committee and direct the Village Development Committee to take necessary actionsfortheclearanceoftheirregularities inrespectofthoseirregularitieswhichcannotberegularizedundertheprevailinglaw.


(e) To grant approval, as required, on such number of positions, remuneration, allowance andotherfacilitiesoftheemployeesproposedbytheVillageDevelopmentCommitteeasaretobebornefromitsowninternalsource.

Fiscal Decentralization in Nepal and the Legal Provisions: Fiscal decentralization is crucial for effective decentralization as it is related with theresourcemobilization fordevelopment.Revenuegenerationauthoritymustbeprovidedto thelocalbodiessothattheycangenerateresourcesfortheirdevelopmentandfundingresponsibilityshouldbedevolvedtolocalbodiesforaccountabilityandtoenhanceresponsibilityinthelocalbodies.Ithelpsindevelopinghumancapitalatlocalbodiesandreducespovertyinlocalbodies.Decentralization approach has given top priority in fiscal decentralization and the legal provisions in this regard have put deep concern in fiscal decentralization. However, Local Self Governance Act 1999 and Regulation 2000 have adequate provisions for effective fiscal decentralization; there has been separate Local Bodies Economic Administration Regulation 2007. This regulation has developedlotsofworkingproceduresandmechanismfordifferentlocalbodies.

Fiscal Decentralization in Local Self-Governance Act 1999: Legalprovisionisvitalforeffectiveimplementationofdecentralizationbecauseacentralbody is always express reluctance to provide authority because it is related to power issue.Hence, there has been long conflict between local bodies and central bodies. Centrally controlled developmentapproachdidnotprovidethegoodresultinpastinNepal.Aftertherestorationofdemocracy in 1990, constitutionally, the decentralization has been taken as the guiding principle of governance and the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2006 has accomplished this principle. Local Self -Governance Act (LSGA) 1999 and its regulation 2000 have defined the source of revenue at local bodies along with the funding principle, expenditure authority, fiscal accountability and responsibility. LSGA 1999 has given legal authority of programme formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation as well as benefit sharing in local bodies. Chapter 6 of Part 2 of the Act isaboutformulationofplansofVillageDevelopmentCommitteeandprocessofimplementation.Chapter 7 of this part is about financial provision for Village Development Committee (VDC). Articles �� to 69 are about the overall financial provision for VDC. In this part, the Act has explained abouttaxesinVDCbodies,Servicecharge,Fees,Incomethroughselling,Loan.Similarly,theActhasdescribedaboutthemodeofmarketingexpenditure,budgetheads,andprovisionofauctionsaleandaccounttobemaintainedbyVDC.LastarticleofthisparthasexplainedabouttheauditoftheVDC’stransaction. Part threeof thisAct is all about theMunicipality. In thispart, theAct has explainedabout the financial provision for municipalities. It has described about the taxes that municipality can adopt within its territory, different charges like service charge, fares, municipal tax. ThispartofActhasprovided fullauthority forvariouskindsof taxes like landrevenueandhouseandlandtax,rentaltax,enterprisetax,vehicletax,parkingtax,propertytax,entertainmenttax,commercial video tax, advertisement tax and many more. Likewise, part four of Act is aboutDistrict Development Committee (DDC). Like VDC and municipality, the act has provided lots ofauthorityforrevenuegeneratingindistrictbodiesandexpenditureresponsibilitytoDDCforoveralldevelopmentofrespectivedistrict. Besides these financial authorities, the Act has provided various semi-judicial powers to local bodies to handle the local level disputes among the people in their territories. Thisshows that the Local Self Governance Act 1999 and its regulation are the milestones for effective decentralization inNepal.The implementationstatusof theActandregulation ishowevernot


satisfactory.Therearelotsofreasonsbehindthisbutthepoliticalinstabilityinthecountrysincetheactpassedfromparliamentisthemostimportantone.Thepoliticianincentralbodiesalwaysbecamereluctanttoprovidetheauthoritytolocalbodiesasitisconcernedwiththepowerinlocalbodies. The majority of different political parties in local bodies and central bodies also became anotherreasonforthis.Furthermore,thelocalbodieshavenohumancapitaltoexercisethelegalprovisions.

Achievements in Fiscal Decentralization in Nepal Fiscal decentralization and sub-national government budget management play anincreasinglyimportantroleinsoundpublicpolicyanddemocraticgovernance.Decentralizationefforts around the world have greatly enhanced the efficiency with which government services are provided. By yielding greater fiscal responsibilities to regional and local governments, the public sector can be more flexible in response to variations in regional and local needs and demands for publicservices.Asaresult,decentralizationofthepublicsectoralsoincreasescitizen’sparticipationinthegovernanceprocessandenhancesgovernmentaccountability. TheDecentralizationImplementationandMonitoringCommittee,astrongprovisioninLSGA is the apex body headed by prime minister and its working committee, has the overallresponsibility tomonitoranddirectdecentralizationefforts in the country.The committee hasapproved "Decentralization Implementation Plan (DIP)" with short and long term implementation actionstoenhancetheprocessofdecentralization.TheTenthPlan/PovertyReductionStrategyPaper (PRSP) has considered decentralization as the cross cutting aspect, which is directly/indirectly linkedwiththepovertyreductionandcontributestothefourpillarsoftheplan.Thefocusoftheplan is on the policy and legal reform, institutional development, resource mobilization, people's participation,localautonomyandcapacityenhancementoflocalbodies.Theplanhasemphasizedsectoraldevolutionasanimportantstrategytopromotelocalgovernancesystem. There is a provision for a Local Body Fiscal Commission (LBFC) to make recommendations to promote financial autonomy and fiscal decentralization system. The Immediate Action Plan (IAP) to improve governance and prioritize urgent efforts has become instrumental in moving theagendaofdecentralizedactionswithregardtorevenuesharing,transferofservicedeliveringunits and formation of local service. Local Bodies Fiscal Commission (LBFC) has been constituted undertheleadershipofViceChairpersonofNationalPlanningCommissionanditspermanentsecretariat has been established in July 2003 with full time working professionals. A detailed road map of LBFC has also been adopted in February 2003. The expenditure assignment study has been completed and its finding is being reviewed (National Planning Commission, 2004, DecentralizationinNepal). Localbodieshavebeenprovidedwithadditionalresourcesfromthecenterthroughrevenuesharingmechanism,asenvisagedintheAct.Thesharingmechanismadoptedforhydropoweris�0% of the royalties, 30% of tourism fee, �0% royalty from mining, 10% of the revenue from the forest product, and � to 90% of the land registration fee (Budget speech, F/Y2004/200�, Ministry ofFinance).AhighlevelLocalBodiesStrengtheningRecommendationCommitteeheadedbytheMinisterofLocalDevelopmenthasbeenconstitutedtorecommendpolicymeasurestostrengthenlocal bodies and the process of decentralization (www.mld.gov.np).

Challenges: Lots of legal provisions have been developed for perfect fiscal decentralization, however, theimplementationoftheselawsarenotsatisfactory.Thedecentralizationhasbecomeonlythepolicydebate issueand it ismuchmoredirectedby thedonors.Theneedandcapacityof thelocalbodiestoincorporatethelegalprovisionshavenotbeenassessed.Therearestillmorethan


20 laws that are contradictory with Local Self-Governance Act 1999. The political consensus for effectivedecentralizationhasnotbeendevelopedyet.ThesearesomereasonsthatthechallengeofachievingtheperfectdevolutionisbeingunsuccessfulinNepal.Recently,politicalregimeinNepalhasbeenchangedandtheStateisundertheprocessofrestructuring.TheCentralStateisgoingtobeaFederalStatethroughConstitutionalAssembly.ThereisstilldebateinpoliticalcircleaboutwhetherdecentralizationorFederalStatewouldbeaneffectivesolutionfortheequitabledevelopment of Nepal. Despite the above achievements and initiatives, the absence of localelectedrepresentativeshasconstrainedtheeffectiveimplementationofdecentralizationandlocalgovernance system. The major gaps and challenges observed are enumerated below:

• Theconceptandmeaningofdecentralization/devolutionaredifferentlyunderstood.Thedifferentunderstandingamongdifferentsectorshasresultedinlaggingtheinitiationofthe Decentralization Implementation Plan (DIP).

• There are still more than 20 other legal provisions which have been identified contradictory with LSGA and are yet to be finalized, which have hampered the effective implementation ofdecentralizationandlocalgovernance.

• Orientation and commitment of central level government institutions towardsdecentralization in taking its advantages and ownership is not fully realized by thesectors.

• Unclear mandates, resource constraints and guidelines recognizing local priorities have resulted in vertical planning from the line agencies and shopping list from the localbodies.

• The model of the government (Unitary or Federal) has not yet been decided by the ConstitutionalAssembly.Hence, there isnotclearsightforthedecentralizationinthischangedpoliticalsystem.

Future Steps to be taken for Effective Fiscal Decentralization in Nepal The most significant gap in implementation of the fiscal decentralization in Nepal in the past was the inefficiency in implementing agencies. The local people who are the direct beneficiaries ofthispolicyarealsoincapableinprovidingfeedbackrathertheyputfrequentpressuretotheelectedbodiestoacteffectivelyforproperdecentralization.Effectivecapacitybuildingrequiresat the minimum clear fiscal decentralization framework; a clear accountability for the devolved responsibilities.Likewise,marketsandinstitutionsabletorespondtotheemergingdemandforcapacitysupportandaminimumlevelofcapacitywithinlocalbodiestomanageaprogrammeofcapacity building are mandatory. Hence, here is a list of recommendation for effective and efficient fiscal decentralization in ‘New Nepal’ with new political system:

• Clear expenditure assignment (delineating roles and responsibilities) between the central andthelocallevels,hastobedemarcated.

• Financialsystemanditstransparencyhavetobelinkedupwiththemanagementcapacityofthelocalbodies.

• Financialresourcesoflocalbodiesshouldbestrengthenedthroughformula-basedgrantallocation,andrevenuesharingonequitablebasis.

• Weak fiscal discipline and less transparency prevailing in the local bodies have hampered local resource mobilization, causing high irregularities, hence well fiscal discipline should bemaintained.

• Revenue sharing mechanism should be well defined among the local bodies so that the predictability of resource allocation and maximum utilization of resources could beachieved.


• The funds that are now flowing out of the local funding framework should be incorporated withinthelocalfundingframework.

• ThedevolutionguidelinepreparedbytherespectivelineministryshouldbecompatiblewiththespiritofdevolutionandLSGA.

• Participatoryplanningprocessneeds tobe strengthenedandconsolidated to integrateall devolved functions into the planning, programming and management of the localbodies.

• It is necessary to strengthen and enhance financial efficiency, resource planning, computerized accounting, financial reporting, and auditing mechanism including social auditsinlocalbodies.

• Gendermainstreaming,budgeting,andauditingmechanismshouldbeinstitutedatalllevelsoflocalgovernancestructure.

Conclusion Decentralizationisvitalfordemocraticgovernancesothatithasbecomeakeypolicyforthegoodgovernanceinrecentarena.InNepal,decentralizationhasbeenakeypolicyforeverygovernment since 19�0s and it has been taken as a strong policy tool for equitable resource allocation andpovertyreductioninNepal.FromthePanchayatregimetotheNewRepublicNepal,itisthefundamentalpolicythatthegovernmentisadoptingforruraldevelopmentindevelopmentagenda.Donoragenciesaremoreengagedinthedecentralizationpolicyimplementationandhugeamountofaid/loan fromdonoragencieshavebeenprovided in thissector.LocalSelfGovernanceAct1999, its regulation 2000, Local Bodies Financial Administration Regulation 2007, Decentralization Implementation Plan (DIP) are some legal provisions for effective decentralization. Inclusive Local Councilwaselectedinthelastlocallevelelectionbutthelocalbodiesarenowlackingtheelectedbodies and hence, facing lot of problems in implementing the projects due to lack of political consensus. Nepal is under the way of transformation from its 240 years from more unitary state system toFederalStatethroughrecentlyelectedConstitutionalAssembly.Inthistransitionalperiod,thereis void in the policy agenda, but whether the State would be Unitary or Federal in nature, the issuesofdecentralizationwouldnotbeinlowprioritybecause,itisthemostdemocraticandvitalfor the accountability. The awareness in the local people has been grown up but still insufficient. Hence, it is necessary to aware the people for their rights and duties for effective and efficient localgovernance.Theresourcemobilizationcapabilityinlocallevelshouldbeincreasedandtheautonomytolocalbodiesshouldbeprovidedforrevenuegenerationandexpenditurefortheirdevelopment. The central influence in every steps of development should be eradicated, then after, thefullydevolvedlocalgovernancesystemcanbeachievedinthenation.

Abbreviation UsedLDC-LeastDevelopedCountriesLSGA-LocalSelf-GovernanceActVDC-VillageDevelopmentCommitteeDDC-DistrictDevelopmentCommitteeDIP-DecentralizationImplementationPlanLBFC-LocalBodyFiscalCommissionIAP-ImmediateActionPlan


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