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BÜHLAU VERLAG KÖLN WIEN

E R W I N W A L T E R P A L M Z U M 70 . G E B U R T S T A G

Homenaje a Erwin Walter Palm

herausgegeben von coordinado y preparado por

H E L G A V O N K Ü G E L G E N K R O P F I N G E R

I N H A L T I n d i c e

Prologo X V I I

Tabula Gratulatoria X X I

E r w i n W a l t e r P a l m : V i t a X X V I I

Bibl iograf ia de las publicaciones de E r w i n Walter Palm, recopilada por Helga von Kügelgen Kropf inger X X X V

W o l f g a n g T r e u e , E r w i n Walter Palm y el Proyecto M e x i c o de la Fundac ion Alemana para la Investigacion C i e n t i f i c a L I

A U F S Ä T Z E A r t i c u l o s

I . A R C H Ä O L O G I E U N D G E O W I S S E N S C H A F T E N A r q u e o l o g i a y G e o c i e n c i a s

A n g e l G a r c i a C o o k , Capulac-Concepcion (P — 211): U n Juego de Pelota temprano en el A l t i p l a n o Central de M e x i c o 1

E d u a r d o M a t o s M o c t e z u m a , Notas sobre algunas urnas funerarias del Templo M a y o r 17

I g n a c i o B e r n a l , U n t ipo de pectorales de Oaxaca. . . . 33

H o r s t H ä r t u n g , L a estructuracion de los alzados en la arquitectura precolombina de M i t l a 41

F r a n z T i c h y , E l patron de asentamientos con sistema radial en la Meseta Central de M e x i c o : c^«sistemas ceque» en Mesoamerica? 61

D i e t e r K l a u s u n d W i l h e l m L a u e r , Humanöko­logische Aspekte der vorspanischen Besiedlungsgeschichte, Bevölkerungsentwicklung u n d Gesellschaftsstruktur i m mexikanischen Hochland 85

Inhalt

K l a u s H e i n e , Outl ine of Man's Impact on the Natural Environment in Central M e x i c o 121

K l a u s K n o b l i c h , Grundwasserneubildung und G r u n d ­wassererschließungsmöglichkeiten i m R a u m Puebla — Tlaxcala 133

G e r d W e r n e r , Bodenkartierung im zentralen Hochland von Puebla — Tlaxcala 151

K o n r a d T y r a k o w s k i , A d o b e — un material de construccion tradicional del Al t ip lano Mexicano : Resulta-dos de un examen de laboratorio 165

I I . E T H N O H I S T O R I E - G E S C H I C H T E L I T E R A T U R E t n o h i s t o r i a - - H i s t o r i a — L i t e r a t u r a

M i g u e l L e o n - P o r t i l l a, Conciencia de clase en los textos de los pipiltin, (nobles) del M e x i c o antiguo 175

W o 1 f g a n g T r a u t m a n n , Morphologie des kolonial ­zeit l ichen Verkehrsnetzes in Tlaxcala 187

J a c q u e s L a f a y e , Virtudes y vicios del Indio oriental y el Indio occidental . U n caso de fricciön interetnica en Fi l ipinos: siglo X V I I 209

H o r s t P i e t s c h m a n n , L a poblac ion de Tlaxcala a fines del siglo X V I I I 223

B o d o S p r a n z , Berichte über die im 18. Jahrhundert entdeckten Ruinen von Palenque, M e x i k o , in einer deut­schen Veröffentlichung von 1832 239

G i s e l a B e u t l e r , Floripes, la princesa pagana en los bailes de «Moros y Cristianos» de M e x i c o : Algunas observaciones sobre las fucntes literarias 257

Inhalt V I I

I I I . A R C H I T E K T U R U N D D E N K M A L P F L E G E A r q u i t e c t u r a y C o n s e r v a c i o n

C a r l o s C h a n f o n O l m o s , E l Castillo-Palacio de D o n Hernando Cortes en Cuernavaca 299

S i l v i o Z a v a l a , U n a etapa en la construccion de la cate-dral de M e x i c o , alrededor de 1585 321

S o n i a L o m b a r d o d e R u i z , Arqui tec tura religiosa

marginada en el siglo X V I : U n estudio de caso 331

M a r c o D f a z , L a arquitectura domestica en A t l i x c o . . . . 377

M a r i a C o n c e p c i o n A m e r l i n c k d e C o r s i , Arquitectos y plazas de toros en Nueva Espana 393

U r s u l a D y c k e r h o f f , L a reedificacion de las «Casas Reales» de Huejotzingo, 1640 409

O l i v a C a s t r o M o r a l e s , L a Casa de Mangino en la c iudad de Puebla 437

E l i s a G a r c i a B a r r a g a n , L a arquitectura neo-indi-genista mexicana del siglo X I X 449

E d u a r d o T e j e i r a D a v i s , Raices novohispänicas de la arquitectura en los Estados Unidos a principios del siglo X X 459

J o s e L u i s L o r e n z o, Salvar el arte 493

S e r g i o Z a l d i v a r G u e r r a , «El Caballito» 501

H a n s H a u f e , E l sueno del progreso. L a arquitectura poblana del siglo X I X como catalizador 511

M i g u e l M e s s m a c h e r , L a historia en el conocimiento y expl icacion de los problemas de la c iudad de M e x i c o . . 531

VII I Inhalt

I V . I K O N O L O G I E - M A L E R E I K U N S T G E W E R B E I c o n o l o g i a - P i n t u r a — A r t e s an 1 a

M a r t a F o n c e r r a d a d e M o 1 i n a, Los murales de Cacaxt la : Muerte en la guerra 537

H u g u e t t e J o r i s d e Z a v a l a , L'allegorie de l ' A m e -rique dans l'art europeen 563

H e l g a v o n K ü g e l g e n K r o p f i n g e r , E l frontis-pic io de Franc.ois Gerard para la obra de viaje de H u m ­boldt y Bonpland 575

C l e m e n t i n a D i a z y d e O v a n d o , Primicias de la iconologia en M e x i c o (1865) 617

C o n s t a n t i n o R e y e s - V a l e r i o , L a pintura mural del siglo X V I en M e x i c o 629

M a r i a E l e n a L a n d a A b r e g o , Presencia de s imbologia indigena en una Capi l la Posa del siglo X V I . . 637

E l e n a E s t r a d a d e G e r l e r o, E l programa pasionario en el convento franciscano de Huejotzingo. . . 643

M a n u e l G o n z a l e z G a l v ä n , E p i f a n i a Guada-lupana 663

E f r a i n C a s t r o M o r a l e s , Los Cuadros de Castas de la Nueva Espana 671

E l i s a V a r g a s L u g o , U n a pintura desconocida del siglo X V I I 691

X a v i e r M o y s s e n , L a pintura flamenca, Rubens y la Nueva Espana 699

M a r i a J o s e f a M a r t i n e z d e l R i o d e R e d o , Los botones de la Condesa-Duquesa 707

O U T L I N E O F M A N ' S I M P A C T O N T H E N A T U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T I N C E N T R A L M E X I C O

B y K l a u s H e i n e *

I.

Düring the Ice Age, when the sea level was lowered (submerg-ed sea levels lay 17,000 years before present -130 m to -170 m in Austral ia and -90 m to -130 m off north east A m e r i c a ) 1 , As ian people could pass the Bering strait between A s i a and Alaska . F r o m there they spread all over N o r t h , Central , and South A m e ­rica. A t some sites in M e x i c o bones of mammoth and other early--dated extinct Pleistocene faunal assemblages were found associa-ted w i t h human artefacts. The Tepexpan skul l of the Basin of Mexico was thought to be the first Mexican for many years, but nowadays we have evidence of much older human sites.

The stone age hunter d i d not influence his natural environ-ment in M e x i c o . Y e t , as early as 5,000 years before Christ the people of Mexico began to cultivate different p l a n t s 2 . Primitive irrigation schemes were buil t more than 4,000 years before pre­sent. Therefore, we must be aware of the influence of men on the natural environment — on purpose or unintentional ly. Düring thousands of years civilizations developed and declined, migrat-ing people reached the Central Mexican Highland; breakdowns of civilizations occurred, new ones rose. The populat ion density varied, although through the times the number of human beings

*) Acknowledgement: Financial support for this research was received through the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.

1) David B o w e n, Quaternary Geology, a Stratigraphic Framework for Multidisciplinary Work, Oxford — New York — Toronto — Sydney — Paris - Frankfurt 1978, pp. 1-221.

2 ) Frederic J o h n s o n , Chronology and Irrigation, The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley, vol. IV, ed. Richard S. M a c N e i s h, Austin &: Lon­don 1972, pp. 1-290. Christine N i e d e r b e r g e r, ,, Early Sedentary Economy in the Basin of Mexico. New data suggest significant variants in early post-PIeistocene human occupations in Middle America" , in: Science, vol. 203, 1979, pp. 131-142.

increased. The settlement or colonizat ion of the antecedents of the modern agrarian societies led to distinct changes of the natu­ral environment. The natural V e g e t a t i o n of the high plateaus was replaced by succesive plant communities that were used to poorer soils and less water. Düring the mid-Holocene an oak woodland flourished where today a thorn-thicket Covers the slopes. Erosion has destroyed the soils where 2,500 years ago the ancient people for the first time cleared the woodland . Soi l ero-sion — in connection w i t h other environmental damages (e.g. lowering of the ground water table) — is due to human influence in M e x i c o . In the Puebla/Tlaxcala area soil erosion started at 800 years before Christ together w i t h an extensive acquisit ion of land. So i l erosion has played an important role in history.

In this article I give a brief report on the role of soil erosion in the evolut ion of the cultural landscape of the Puebla/Tlaxcala area.

II.

A scheme of the three-dimensional development of the natural environment of the Central Mexican Highland during the late Quaternary is given in Figure L Füll details regarding the Inter­pretation of the scheme are given elsewhere 3 . Periods of normal or catastrophic processes, stability, and erosion during the past 36,000 years are immediately recognizable. The processes (Fig. 1), w h i c h are control led by the biocl imat ic mi l ieu, create distinctive soils and landforms. However, before the processes are considered, the cl imatic criteria which determine the nature of processes need to be considered. Dur ing the past 36,000 years thrce major periods w i t h high erosion intensities can be distin-guished: (a) 36,000 t o > 32,000 years before present, (b) circa

3 ) Klaus H e i n e , Quartäre Pluvialzeiten und klimamorphologischer Formenwandel in den Randtropen (Mexiko, Kalahari), Arbeiten aus dem Geographischen Institut der Universität des Saarlandes, vol. 29, Saarbrücken 1980, pp. 135-157.

12,000 years before present, and (c) 10,000 to 8,500 years be­fore present These periods w i t h high erosion intensities coincide w i t h cl imatic changes f rom relative aridity to greater humidi ty . Figure 1 shows that there is no synchroneous development of the trend of the temperature on the one hand and of the trend of the humidi ty on the other hand. The temperature curve for the last 36,000 years before present is marked in the tropics of the Cen­tral Mexican Highland by an increase between 36,000 and >26,000 years before present, a decrease between ca. 26,000 and ca. 16,000 years before present (with the last glacial temperature m i n i m u m around 17,000—16,000 years before present), and an increase of the temperature w i t h minor fluctuations during the period <16,000 to 8,000 years before present. The postglacial cl imatic o p t i m u m is reached 8,000 to 5,000 years before pre­sent. Some minor temperature oscillations are recognizable after 5,000 years before present. Under warm but not extremely humid condit ions, e.g. the period between ca. 30,000 and 25,000 years before present (Fig . 1), the geomorphic processes are main-ly restricted to the preparation of the material by weathering, whereas the movement of the material and its export f rom the catchment is confined to short periods of activity during w h i c h considerable w o r k is done. Extremely climatological events, especially in mountain areas, played the essential role in land­form development during the late Quaternary in the Central Mexican H i g h l a n d 4 .

The Holocene por t ion of Figure 1 shows that the periods of slow or fast Sedimentation, stability, and erosion during the past 8,000 years before present are not exclusively control led by cl i ­matic causes. Relatively abrupt environmental changes, such as that caused by the ,12,000 years before present event ' 5 , d id not occur during the Holocene, but human clearance of forests and woodland led to sudden changes in the amount of denudation. Since 800 years before Christ soil erosion in the Central Mexican Highland is considered to be a serious problem.

4 ) H e i n e , Quartäre Pluvialzeiten. 5 ) Klaus H e i n e , "Sintflutartige Niederschläge in Mexiko vor 12 000

Jahren", in : Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv, N E , Jg. 7, Heft 1/2 (1981), pp. 69 -76 .

III.

The State of our current knowledge on the erosion processes of the Puebla/Tlaxcala area is given in Figure 2. This synthesis Stresses the d i f f i cu l ty of understanding the Holocene erosion pro­cesses that led to the impact on the natural environment in Cen­tral M e x i c o . Some questions w i l l be discussed here i n brief: (a) Were the geomorphic processes control led by the cl imatic mil ieu during the last 3,000 years? (b) Were the late Holocene processes control led by man's activity? (c) O r must we think of several processes w i t h varying periodicities that may occasionally coincide, reinforcing one another and creating an overall tenden-cy that is strongly unfavorable or favorable to the geomorphic processes?

More h u m i d periods compared w i t h today occurred between ca. 1300 years before Christ and ca. 100 A . D . and between ca. 1100 A . D . and 1890 A . D . according to the data I obtained in connection w i t h observations on glacial and periglacial land-f o r m s 6 . Higher and/or more accentuated precipitations and higher erosion rates are not correlated unless there are modif ica-tions of Vegetation cover. Relatively rapid precipitat ion changes may cause an accelerated development of the barrancas of the gorges, the debris accumulat ion at the end of these gorges, the debris f lows, the landslides, and the sol i f luct ion processes of the ,periglacial ' belt of the high volcanoes. Figure 2 shows that the erosional processes d id not increase in intensity at the beginning of the period w i t h a higher effectiveness of precipitat ion. Soi l erosion started only when the populat ion growth made possible improved irrigation Systems and the cult ivation of marginal areas of the Puebla/Tlaxcala basin. The Tlatempa Phase ( 1 2 0 0 - 8 0 0 years before Chr i s t ) 7 was characterized by 66 Settlements w i t h

6 ) Klaus H e i n e , Studien zur jungquartären Glazialmorphologie mexikanischer Vulkane mit einem Ausblick auf die Klimaentwicklung. Das Mexiko-Projekt der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft, vol. VII, ed. Wil­helm L a u e r , Wiesbaden 1975, pp. 1 — 178. H e i n e , Quartäre Pluvialzei-ten.

7 ) Angel G a r c i ' a C o o k , " U n a secuencia cultural para Tlaxcala", in: Comunicaciones Proyecto Puebla-Tlaxcala 10, Fundacion Alemana para la Investigacion Cientffica (fortan: Comunicaciones), Puebla 1974, pp. 5—22.

50 to >350 inhabitants. Dur ing the Tlatempa Phase no soil dete-rioration occurred. Wi th the growing populat ion density soil erosion stated during the Texoloc Phase and culminated during the Tezoquipan Phase (ca. 300 years before Christ — 100 A . D . ) . Studies of rates of erosion s h o w 8 that relatively abrupt environ­mental changes, such as that caused by human clearance of forests and woodlands can lead to sudden changes in the amount of erosion. In Central Mexico the natural Vegetation cover was removed rapidly more than 2500 years ago during the Texoloc Phase. The result was accelerated soil erosion which then occur­red for the first t ime during the Holocene.

A second period of accelerated soil erosion started during the Texcalac Phase. After the Tenanyecac Phase of Stagnation and of decreasing populat ion, the Texcalac Phase reached another apex in the demographic expansion in pre-Spanish times. The erosion processes responded relatively rapidly to the impact on the natural environment that was caused again by the expansion of the rural populat ion and the human clearance of the Vegetation. Direct rainfall impact on the exposed soils washed much more material downslope than w o u l d have been eroded under the natu­ral Vegetation cover. This erosion period between ca. 650 A . D . and 1100 A . D . d id not coincide w i t h a period of higher precipita­t ion ; the soil damage occurred under the impact of the Texcalac agricultural technology and in response to growing food de-mands. There is evidence that during the Texcalac Phase the slopes of the volcanoes were intensively cultivated up to 3,000 m altitude.

The second destructive period which set in at the beginning of the Texcalac Phase continued unt i l the colonial epoch. A c c o r d i n g to a rapid decrease in populat ion after the Spanish Conquest 9

soil erosion damages diminished slightly. Al though several minor cl imatic fluctuations are recorded for the Central Mexican High-

8 ) Klaus H e i n e , "Mensch und geomorphodynamische Prozesse in Raum und Zeit im randtropischen Hochbecken von Puebla/Tlaxcala, Mexi­k o " , in: 41. Deutscher Geographentag Mainz, Tagungsberichte und wissen­schaftliche Abhandlungen, Wiesbaden 1978, pp. 390-406.

9 ) Wolfgang T r a u t m a n n , "Ergebnisse der Wüstungsforschung in Tlaxcala (Mexiko)", in: Erdkunde, vol. 28 (1974), pp. 115-124.

land during the last 2,000 years 1 0 , no response of rates of erosion to cl imatic changes could be observed.

I V .

Figure 2 provides an opportuni ty to discuss the reasons for accelerated soil erosion. It is illustrated b y the figure which shows not only the periods of soil erosion in relation to the different cultural phases but also in combinat ion to some social (e.g. irrigation) and environmental (e.g. effectiveness of precipita­t ion, Vegetation history) factors, that we need mult idiscipl inary informat ion in order to comprehend the mul t ip l i c i ty of processes involved in resolving and understanding soil erosion problems.

Dur ing the last 3,000 years before present, the geomorphic processes of the Central Mexican Highland up to about 3,000 m altitude were not control led by the climatic mi l ieu but by man's activity. It is possible to view civilizations as ecosystems that emerge i n response to sets of ecological opportunities, that is, econiches to be e x p l o i t e d 1 1 . The study of soil erosion in Central Mexico makes clear that the responsible processes of the Tenan-yecac period of decline involved at least three major factors, namely a decrease i n precipitat ion, rural depopulat ion, and in-security due to pol i t ical instabil i ty. The same denominators of periods of decline are described from ancient Egypt where each retrograde phase coincided w i t h negative social developments w i t h i n , as wel l as negative environmental or social interventions from w i t h o u t 1 2 .

In the Puebla/Tlaxcala area the rates of soil erosion demon-strate that periods of strong human impact on the natural envi­ronment coincided w i t h phases of cultural and demographic

1 0 ) Dieter O h n g e m a c h and Herbert S t r a k a, " L a historia de la vegetaciön en la region Puebla-Tlaxcala durante el cuaternario tardi'o", in: Comunicaciones 15, 1978, pp. 189—204. H e i n e , Mensch und geomor-phodynamische Prozesse.

1 ! ) Karl W. B u t z e r , "Civilizations: Organisms or Systems?", in: American Scientist, vol. 68, no. 5, 1980, pp. 517-523 .

1 2 ) B u t z e r , Civilizations.

growth when land use was intensified and many new villages were founded. Periods of decline w i t h rural depopulat ion led to a minor human impact on the natural environment. We cannot decide yet, whether the periods of decline were mainly caused by damages of the natural environment and/or fluctuations of some climatic elements (e.g. precipitation), because we cannot deter-mine lags in the response of geomorphic processes at short time scales. Four possibilities are shown in Figure 3: (1) The maxi-m u m rate of soil erosion was reached at the beginning of a colo-nizat ion phase and continued unt i l the end of the period w i t h dense rural populat ion , (2) the m a x i m u m rate of soil erosion coincided w i t h the rapid extension of the rural populat ion but diminished soon, because of the adaptation to the new para-meters, (3) the m a x i m u m rate of soil erosion was reached only at the end of the colonizat ion period, (4) the m a x i m u m rate of soil erosion was due to several catastrophic events. The examples of Figure 3 demonstrate that soil erosion may have occurred in the beginning or the falling phase or throughout i t ; even individual catastrophic events may have caused the soil erosion. However, although the amount of change by soil erosion is k n o w n , the relative speed (rate) of change is not.

If there were severe damages of the environment caused by soil erosion throughout the Texoloc and Tezoquipan Phases, the decline of Tenanyecac Phase might be seen in connection w i t h man's impact on the environment. The observed sedimentary records favor the idea that high rates of soil erosion occurred between ca. 600 years before Christ and 100 A . D . , i.e. during 700 years. The widespread damage of the natural environment and the diminishing effectiveness of precipitation around 100 A . D . in connection w i t h negative social developments might have been caused the decline of the Tenanyecac Phase.

V .

Man's impact on the soil environment is feit and regis tered in the form of increasing S e d i m e n t a t i o n rates in the basin of Puebla /Tlaxcala o v e r the past 2,500—3,000 vears. During the last

decades it appears that agricultural activities have accelerated soil erosion in a great ex tent 1 3 . The montane forests of the volcanoes in altitudes between 3,000 and 3,600 m are being steadily de-pleted in all areas of the Central Mexican Highland. If present rates of misuse and clearance of the forests persist — and they are l ikely to accelerate —, the biome, now covering the slopes up to 4,000 m altitude, could be reduced to remnant fragments w i t h i n less than half a Century. This w o u l d represent one of the greatest environmental impoverishments in the foreseeable future, and a biological debacle w i t h dimensions that d id not occur at any time of the Holocene. If Central Mexico 's montane forests disappear w i t h i n a few decades, the Mexicans w i l l suffer b y way of envi­ronmental degradation, decline of watershed Services, and the l i k e 1 4 . Already the Valsequil lo dam is rapidly being silted up, and Mexico 's mountain areas near the G u l f of M e x i c o have undergone excessive hurricane damage due to loss of mountain forest c o v e r 1 5 . If we agree w i t h the postulation that civilizations behave as adaptive Systems 1 6 , then the unexpected coincidence of envi­ronmental perturbation, poor leadership, social pathology, and external pol i t ical stress can trigger a catastrophic train of mutual-ly reinforcing events that Mexico 's c ivi l izat ion is unable to absorb. If we were able to understand better the long history of the ups and downs of the Mexican c ivi l izat ion, we could call for relevant proposals to resolve the recent environmental prob-lems.

1 3 ) H e i n e , Mensch und geomorphodynamische Prozesse. 1 4 ) Klaus H e i n e , ö k o l o g i s c h e Katastrophe in Mexiko?" , in: Umschau

in Wissenschaft und Technik, vol. 78, 1978, pp. 491 496. 1 5 ) Klaus H e i n e , "Photo der Woche — G e o ö k o l o g i e " , in: Umschau

in Wissenschaft und Technik, vol. 76, 1976, p. 202. Hartmut E m , "Be­deutung und Gefährdung zentralmexikanischer Gebirgsnadelwälder" , in: Umschau in Wissenschaft und Technik, vol. 73, 1973, pp. 85—86.

1 6 ) B u t z e r , Civilizations.

WARM

Fig. 1: Scheme of the three-dimensional development of the natural environment of the Central Mexican Highland during the late Quaternary.

TO •-

U o>

Basin of Mexico

IXTAPALUCA ZACATENCO

Basin of Puebla/Tlaxcala

TZOMPAN -TEPEC

Number of Settlements x) Inhabitants per settlement *)

14

40 - 100

TLATEMPA

66

TICOMANj TEOTIHUACAN II III

TEXOLOC

186

TEZOQUI -PAN

207

TENANYECAC

185

50 - >350 -100 - >1200 150->2000 150->1000 200->2000 100-1500

TULA AZTECA I II III IV

TEXCALAC

253

O

TLAXCALA

136

MODERNO (COLONIAL)

2400 BC 2000 1600 _l I 1 1 1 I I I I I L

800 600 400 200 _l I , I, , l , , l , , l „

0 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 AD J I I I L_

*) in areas of the archaeolog ica l project of the D F G which c o m p n s e a part of the Puebla T laxca la b a s i n .

HEINE 1977

big. 2: Scheme of the soil erosion. The data of the cultural evolution after Angel Garcia Cook, ct. note 7.

Relative precipitation

more arid

maximum density

Relative Vegetation cover

minimum density

minimum density

Relative changes in the size of population

maximum density

minimum

maximum

minimum

maximum

minimum

maximum

©

©

©

® Ii Fig. 3: Explanation in the text.