Limitierte Ökobilanz für Flüssiggas und Petroleum als ...

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Limitierte Ökobilanz für Flüssiggas und Petroleum als Kochbrennstoffe in Indien Restricted Life Cycle Assessment for the Use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas and Kerosene as Cooking Fuels in India Diplomarbeit im Studiengang Technischer Umweltschutz angefertigt von Cand.-Ing. Niels Jungbluth Matrikel Nr. 112127 durchgeführt bei: Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Volker Koß und Dipl.-Ing. Markus Kollar Institut für Technischen Umweltschutz Fachgebiet Umweltchemie Fachbereich 6 Technischen Universität Berlin Berlin, Dezember 95

Transcript of Limitierte Ökobilanz für Flüssiggas und Petroleum als ...

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Limitierte Ökobilanz für Flüssiggas und Petroleum alsKochbrennstoffe in Indien

Restricted Life Cycle Assessment for the Use of LiquefiedPetroleum Gas and Kerosene as Cooking Fuels in India

Diplomarbeitim Studiengang Technischer Umweltschutz

angefertigt von

Cand.-Ing. Niels JungbluthMatrikel Nr. 112127

durchgeführt bei:

Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Volker Koßund

Dipl.-Ing. Markus Kollar

Institut für Technischen Umweltschutz

Fachgebiet Umweltchemie

Fachbereich 6

Technischen Universität Berlin

Berlin, Dezember 95

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Abstract

Die Nutzung von Energie zum Kochen stellt in Indien eine der wichtigsten Energieverbräuche

überhaupt dar. In der vorliegenden Studie wird für die Verwendung der Brennstoffe Petroleum

und Flüssiggas eine Ökobilanz erarbeitet. Die Situation in Indien wird mit Sachbilanzen für fol-

gende Bereiche untersucht: Erdöl- und Erdgasförderung, Weiterverarbeitung in Raffinerien und

Erdgasverarbeitung, Distribution, Transportprozesse und der Kochvorgang. Umweltfolgen, die

durch notwendige Importe bedingt sind, werden durch Berücksichtigung von Literaturdaten in

die Betrachtung einbezogen. Ergänzt werden diese Sachbilanzen durch eine Untersuchung zu

den wirtschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen und den mit dem Lebensweg im Zusammenhang ste-

henden sozialen Folgen. In abschließend berechneten Ökoprofilen werden die Umweltfolgen der

Verwendung von fossilen Brennstoffen zusammenfassend dargestellt. Im direkten Vergleich der

beiden Brennstoffe stellt sich das Kochen mit Flüssiggas als die umweltfreundlichere Alternative

für die meisten der untersuchten Indikatoren dar. Die Studie zeigt ferner, daß für einen ökologi-

schen Vergleich eine Betrachtung des gesamten Lebensweges der untersuchten Kochmöglich-

keiten relevant ist. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie können mit einer Ökobilanz für Brennstoffe aus

Biomasse verglichen werden, die mit derselben Zieldefinition erstellt wird.

The use of energy for cooking is one of the most important sectors for the energy consumption

in India. The study in hand presents a life cycle assessment for the use of kerosene and liquefied

petroleum gas as cooking fuels. The situation in India is investigated through life cycle in-

ventories for the following stages: Extraction of crude oil and natural gas, processing in refiner-

ies and fractionating plants, distribution, product transports and cooking. Environmental impacts

as a result of energy imports are also considered. The study makes also a reflection on the eco-

nomic conditions and the social consequences of both life cycles. The environmental impacts are

summarised with final calculated ecological profiles for the two fuels. A direct comparison of

cooking with the two fuels shows in the majority of the investigated indicators an ecological

advantage in the use of LPG over kerosene. The study shows also the necessity to consider the

whole life cycle for a proper comparison of the investigated cooking possibilities. The results

can be compared with a life cycle assessment of biomass fuels being undertaken with the same

goal definition.

Adresse des Autors:Niels Jungbluth

Breitigasse-9 Tel.0041 43 3059406CH-8610 Uster [email protected]

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Contents

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................ i

CONTENTS................................................................................................................................ I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...........................................................................................................V

ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................................... VI

TABLES.................................................................................................................................. IX

FIGURES ...............................................................................................................................XII

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG .......................................................................................................... XIII

SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................XV

1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1

1.1 India’s Society and Economy.....................................................................................11.2 Energy Scene in India ................................................................................................21.3 Life Cycle Assessment as an Analytical Instrument for Environmental Policy .............41.4 Use of the Computer Program TEMIS as a Tool for the Assessment .........................61.5 Collecting of Data and Participating Organisations.....................................................7

2 GOAL DEFINITION FOR THE LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT...........................................8

2.1 Target Group and Objectives of the Study .................................................................82.2 Description of the Underlying Necessity ...................................................................82.3 Selection of Product Variants for the Investigation ....................................................92.4 Definition of the Functional Unit................................................................................92.5 Life Cycle of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and Kerosene....................................102.6 Investigated Indicators and their Meaning................................................................102.7 Matrix for the Life Cycle Assessment ......................................................................132.8 Definition of the Balance Room...............................................................................152.9 Depth of the Balance ...............................................................................................162.10 Balance Time for the Investigation...........................................................................16

3 PRODUCT DATA FOR THE LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY ..............................................17

3.1 Resources................................................................................................................173.2 Investigation of Energy Carriers Used in India .........................................................17

4 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY FOR THE UPSTREAM SECTOR ........................................23

4.1 Economical Background and Statistics for the Supply of Natural Gas and CrudeOil in India ..............................................................................................................23

4.2 Exploration and Exploitation of Crude Oil and Natural Gas in India.........................254.2.1 Exploration of Petroleum Resources........................................................................264.2.1.1 Pre-surveys for the Exploration ...............................................................................264.2.1.2 Exploratory and Developmental Drilling and Well Testing .......................................26

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4.2.1.3 Use of Materials and Chemicals ...............................................................................274.2.1.4 Energy Use and Emissions of Air Pollutants ............................................................304.2.1.5 Use of Water and Discharge of Effluents .................................................................304.2.1.6 Cuttings and Waste .................................................................................................314.2.1.7 Other Environmental Impacts ..................................................................................334.2.2 Exploitation of Petroleum Resources in India...........................................................334.2.2.1 Exploitation from Onshore Areas.............................................................................334.2.2.2 Exploitation from Offshore Areas ............................................................................354.2.2.3 Materials and Land Use of the Onshore Production Facilities...................................354.2.2.4 Materials and Land Use of the Offshore Production Facilities ..................................354.2.2.5 Onshore Energy Use and Flaring .............................................................................364.2.2.6 Offshore Energy Use and Flaring .............................................................................374.2.2.7 Emissions of Air Pollutants during Exploration and Exploitation..............................374.2.2.8 Onshore Use of Water and Discharge of Effluents ...................................................394.2.2.9 Offshore Use of Water and Discharge of Effluents ...................................................404.2.2.10 Emission of Water Pollutants with the Effluents.......................................................404.2.2.11 On- and Offshore Wastes.........................................................................................414.2.2.12 Dismantling and Reclaiming of the Production Facilities ..........................................424.2.2.13 Other Environmental and Social Impacts .................................................................424.2.3 Quantitative Aspects of Oil and Natural Gas Extraction...........................................434.2.3.1 Allocation of the Investigated Impacts on the two Resources...................................434.2.3.2 Final Inventory for the Petroleum Exploitation.........................................................44

5 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY FOR THE DOWNSTREAM SECTOR...................................47

5.1 The Petroleum Downstream Sector in India.............................................................475.2 Energy Pricing Policy in India..................................................................................495.3 Production of LPG, Kerosene and other Petroleum Products from Crude Oil in

Indian Refineries......................................................................................................515.3.1 Energy Use..............................................................................................................525.3.2 Emission of Air Pollutants .......................................................................................545.3.2.1 Standards for Emissions and Ambient Air Quality ....................................................545.3.2.2 Sources of Air Pollutants.........................................................................................555.3.2.3 Inventory for the Emissions .....................................................................................555.3.3 Water Use and Discharge of Effluents .....................................................................575.3.4 Solid Wastes ...........................................................................................................595.3.5 Other Environmental Impacts ..................................................................................595.3.6 Allocation of the Impacts.........................................................................................605.3.7 Final Inventory for Refineries ..................................................................................615.4 Production of LPG in Indian Fractionating Plants for Natural Gas ...........................635.4.1 Energy Demand.......................................................................................................645.4.2 Emission of Air Pollutants .......................................................................................655.4.3 Final Inventory for Fractionating Plants ...................................................................655.5 Life Cycle Inventory for Indian LPG Bottling Plants ................................................665.6 Rapid Life Cycle Inventory for the Electricity Generation in North India..................68

6 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF LPG AND KEROSENE.........70

6.1 Marketing of LPG in India.......................................................................................706.2 Inventory for the Distribution of LPG......................................................................716.3 Marketing of Kerosene in India................................................................................71

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6.4 Inventory for the Distribution of Kerosene...............................................................726.5 Scenario for the Dhanawas Region ..........................................................................73

7 COOKING LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY .......................................................................74

7.1 Cookstoves for the Use with Kerosene ....................................................................747.2 Cookstoves for the Use with LPG ...........................................................................777.3 Energy Use and Emissions of Pollutants ..................................................................797.3.1 Average Fuel Consumption for Cooking..................................................................797.3.2 Efficiency of Indian Cookstoves ..............................................................................807.3.3 Measurement of Cookstove Emissions.....................................................................817.3.4 Inventory for Cooking with Kerosene......................................................................827.3.5 Inventory for Cooking with LPG .............................................................................847.4 Investigation of Social Impacts ................................................................................847.5 Investigation of Economic Indicators.......................................................................857.6 The Situation in Dhanawas ......................................................................................86

8 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF CRUDE OIL, NATURALGAS, LPG AND KEROSENE ....................................................................................87

8.1 Description of the Necessary Transports and Scenarios for the Inventory.................878.2 Freight Transport with Tankers ...............................................................................898.3 Freight Transport with Trains ..................................................................................908.4 Freight Transport with Trucks and Light Commercial Vehicles ................................928.5 Transport of Petroleum Products by Pipelines..........................................................948.6 Transport of Goods with Bicycle .............................................................................95

9 HORIZONTAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF THE RESULTS ...............................96

9.1 Horizontal Analysis for Quantifiable Impacts of the LPG and Kerosene Supply toDhanawas................................................................................................................96

9.1.1 Additional Impacts due to the Material Use .............................................................969.1.2 Analysis of the Impacts............................................................................................989.1.3 Profiles for the Production of LPG and Kerosene in India, the Mixed Production

and Data for Europe..............................................................................................1019.1.4 Comparison of the Profiles ....................................................................................1029.2 Horizontal Analysis for Cooking in Dhanawas .......................................................1049.2.1 Share of Cooking in the Total Results....................................................................1049.2.2 Environmental Profile for Cooking ........................................................................1079.2.3 Comparison of the Quantifiable Impacts for Cooking in Dhanawas ........................1089.2.4 Comparison of the Costs .......................................................................................1089.2.5 Horizontal Analysis for Qualitative Indicators........................................................1109.2.6 Comparison of the Results with other LCI data for Cooking..................................1119.3 Total Environmental Burden of Cooking with LPG and Kerosene in India .............1149.4 Uncertainties of the Results ...................................................................................115

10 OUTLOOK.............................................................................................................116

11 LITERATURE ........................................................................................................117

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Acknowledgements

The data collection for this report was prepared during a three month stay in the TATA Energy

Research Institute (TERI) in New Delhi, India. I am grateful for the financial support during this

practical training from the German Academic Exchange Service.

I was fortunate in the support I gained for this study from many of the staff members of TERI. I

would like to particularly mention Ms Anjana Das, Dr Veena Joshi, Dr Damyant Luthra, Ms

Alka Nagpal, Dr R. K. Pachauri, Ms Uma Ramchandra, Mr Sumeet Saksena, Mr P. Sengupta,

Dr V. Ravi Shankar, Dr C. S. Sinha, Mr P. V. Sridharan and Ms R. Uma. I thank them for their

assistance.

Thanks are also due to Mr T. R. Jaggi (Oil India Ltd.), Mr B. P. Das and Mr C. P. Jain (Indian

Oil Corporation Ltd.), Dr S. Kapoor (Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.) and Mr B. V. Papa

Rao (Centre for High Technology) for assistance in my investigations.

I am also highly indebted to my supervisors Prof Dr Volker Koß and Mr Markus Kollar for their

active interest and useful suggestions during the studies. Last but not least, the critical evalua-

tion and advice in preparing the manuscript provided by Anne, Britta, Christina, Frank and

Gerath is gratefully acknowledged.

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Abbreviations

a per annum

APM Government administered pricing mechanism

ATF Aviation turbine fuel

Aux. Auxiliary

billion Thousand million

Bm³ Billion cubic metre

BOD Biochemical oxygen demand

BPCL Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd.

BRPL Bongaigaon Refineries and Petrochemicals Ltd.

BSW Bottom-sediment and water sludge

c. i. f. Cost, insurance and freight

C2/C3 Liquefied ethane-propane mixture

CIS Commonwealth of Independent States

CNG Compressed natural gas

CO Carbon oxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide

COD Chemical oxygen demand

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board

CRL Cochin Refinery Ltd.

DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for Standardisation)

DPD Dew point depression

EM Environmental Manual (computer program)

en. Energy

EOR Enhanced oil recovery

ESP Electrostatic precipitator

eta Thermal efficiency of a process (used in the computer program TEMIS)

ETP Effluent treatment plant

FCC Fluid catalytic cracking

FO Fuel (furnace) oil

FTP File transfer protocol

g gram

GAIL Gas Authority of India Ltd.

GEMIS Gesamt-Emissions-Modell Integrierter Systeme

GER Germany

GGS Group gathering station

GJ Giga joule = 109 joule

GNP Gross national product

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Abbreviations

GOI Government of India

h per hour

HC Hydrocarbons

HFO Heavy fuel oil

HHV Higher heating value

HPLC Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd.

HPS Heavy petroleum stock

HSD High speed diesel

IIP Indian Institute of Petroleum

In India

int international

IOC Indian Oil Corporation

IS Indian standard

ISI Indian Standards Institution

kgoe Kilograms of oil equivalent

LCA Life cycle assessment / analysis

LCI Life cycle inventory

LCV Light commercial vehicle

LDC Low / Less / Least developed country

LDO Light diesel oil

LHV Lower heating value

LNG Lean natural gas

LPG Liquefied petroleum gas

LSHS Low sulphur heavy stock

MINAS Minimal national (Indian water) standards

MJ Mega joule = 106 joule

Mm3 Million metric cubic meters

MMSCMD Million metric square cubic meters per day

MRL Madras Refinery Ltd.

MT Million tonnes (in some publications also for metric tonnes!)

Mtcr Million tonnes of coal replacement

Mtoe Million tonnes of oil equivalent

Mtpa Million tonnes per annum

MW Mega watt

n.a. Not available

n.d. No date

NEERI National Environmental Engineering Research Institute

NGL Natural gas liquid

Nm³ Norm cubic meter

NMVOC Non-methane volatile organic compounds

NOX Nitrogen oxides

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Abbreviations

O&M Operating & maintaining

OCC Oil Coordination Committee

OIL Oil India Ltd.

ONGC Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (erstwhile Commission)

OPEC Organisation of Oil Exporting Countries

pa per annum

PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PDS Public distribution system

PM Particulate matter

POL Petroleum, oil & lubricants

PP Power plant

R&D Research & development

Rs Indian Rupees1 (Currency)

SETAC Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry

SI Système International (International system of units of measurement)

SKO Superior kerosene oil

SO2 Sulphur dioxide

SPM Suspended particulate matter

SRU Sulphur recovery unit

t Metric tonnes (= 106 g)

TDS Total dissolved solids

TEG Triethylene glycol

TEMIS Total Emission Model for Integrated Systems

TERI TATA Energy Research Institute

TJ Tera Joule = 1012 Joule

tkm per tonne and kilometre

TNMOC Total non-methane organic compounds

toe Tonnes of oil equivalent

tpa Tonnes per annum

TSP Total suspended particulates

TSS Total suspended solids

UBA Umweltbundesamt (Environmental Protection Agency in Germany)

vol% Volume percent

wt% Weight percent

131 Rs = US$ 1 = 1.50 DM (January 1995)

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Tables

Table 1.1: Social and economic indicators for India................................................................. 1Table 1.2: Commercial energy balance (Mtoe) for 1991/92 (TEDDY 1994)............................ 2Table 2.1: CO2 equivalent factors for a period of 100 years (ÖKO 1993/12) ......................... 12Table 2.2: Matrix of life stages and investigated indicators for the restricted LCA of

commercial cooking fuels ..................................................................................... 14Table 3.1: Analysis of elements in kerosene (wt%)................................................................ 19Table 3.2: Composition of Natural Gas in India. The tables gives also minimum and

maximum contents with different analysis’s .......................................................... 20Table 3.3: Ultimate analysis of solid and liquid fuels.............................................................. 21Table 3.4: Analysis of gases .................................................................................................. 22Table 4.1: Structure and total supply of natural gas and crude oil in 1992/93 (TEDDY

1994) ................................................................................................................... 24Table 4.2: Number of exploratory and development wells and the drilled metreage in In-

dia during the years 1990/91 to 1992/93(TEDDY 1994) ...................................... 27Table 4.3: Materials used for the exploration activities in India (1,000 t/a) ............................ 30Table 4.4: Discharge of fluids during drilling (NEERI 1991/04) ............................................ 31Table 4.5: Water balance for drilling (1,000 t/a) .................................................................... 31Table 4.6: Amounts of cuttings discharge from offshore and onshore drilling sites

(tonnes)................................................................................................................ 33Table 4.7: Gas balance for the production of OIL in 1993/94 (million m³) (OIL 1995) .......... 34Table 4.8: Land use of Oil India Ltd. for oil and gas production (JAGGI 1995)....................... 35Table 4.9: Number and weight of the production facilities in the offshore basin Bombay

High (PETROTECH 1995) ................................................................................. 36Table 4.10: Total quantity of energy carriers used for the oil and gas production including

the exploration activities during one year.............................................................. 37Table 4.11: Combustion devices for diesel oil and gas. Analysis of the literature values,

data from Hazira and estimation for the inventory (mg/Nm³) ................................ 38Table 4.12: Release of greenhouse gases during cold flaring and emission of SO2 in evapo-

ration pits (kg/TJ) ................................................................................................ 38Table 4.13: Water Balances for the western region of ONGC and for the production of

OIL and estimates for the inventory...................................................................... 40Table 4.14: Tolerance limits according to IS 2490-1981 for the discharge of effluents into

different environments (mg/l) and planned Indian standard for onshore and off-shore drilling as presented by HAWK (1995).......................................................... 41

Table 4.15: Minimum and maximum concentrations of water pollutants in the effluents ofdrilling and production sites and estimates for the LCI (mg/l) ............................... 41

Table 4.16: Composition of tank bottom sludge in Uran (PETROTECH-ABSTRACTS

1995:259) ............................................................................................................ 42Table 4.17: Final data for the LCI, data for international extraction and comparison with

the range of values found by other authors ........................................................... 46Table 5.1: Downstream companies and refineries .................................................................. 47Table 5.2: Employed persons in different sectors of the petroleum industry (IPNGS

1993) ................................................................................................................... 48Table 5.3: Origin of LPG and kerosene in India in 1992/93 (TEDDY 1994).......................... 49

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Tables

Table 5.4: Costs of production and selling prices for energy in 1993/94 (INDIA TODAY

1995) ................................................................................................................... 50Table 5.5: Subsidies in billion Rs on major petroleum products (THE ECONOMIC TIMES

1995/01) .............................................................................................................. 50Table 5.6: Comparative costs of cooking fuels (CFSAE 1985; DOWN TO EARTH 1995/02) .... 51Table 5.7: Energy balance for a 4.5 Mtpa refinery with an energy demand of 364 MW

(NEERI 1995) ..................................................................................................... 53Table 5.8: Use of auxiliary energy and flaring in the 12 running Indian refineries and the

average use of energy in 1993/94 (CFHT 1995) ................................................... 53Table 5.9: Air pollution emission standards for SO2 from oil refineries in India (CBWP

1985/07) .............................................................................................................. 54Table 5.10: Ambient air quality criteria (µg/m³) (TERI 1993/01; TREND 1995) ..................... 54Table 5.11: Average emission values from different stacks in 1994 for Indian refineries and

the prescribed standard. Emissions of a German refinery and the standards forgas and oil furnaces in German refineries (mg/m³)................................................. 56

Table 5.12: Emission values for calculations in TEMIS (ÖKO 1994/12) and estimates forthe combustion devices in Indian refineries (mg/Nm³) ........................................... 56

Table 5.13: Emissions of hydrocarbons from refineries due to loss (CFHT 1995; ÖKO1994/12; Own calculation) ................................................................................... 57

Table 5.14: Wastewater sources in a refinery (NEERI 1990/09).............................................. 57Table 5.15: Water balance for the Indian refineries (kg) .......................................................... 58Table 5.16: Average concentration of water pollutants in the effluents of Indian refineries....... 58Table 5.17: Fractions of different sludge and wastes in a refinery (NEERI 1991/04)................ 59Table 5.18: Allocation coefficients investigated for different allocation criteria, indicators

and refinery products and the estimation for the LCI ............................................ 61Table 5.19: Allocation coefficients for the emissions of water pollutants (FRISCHKNECHT

ET AL. 1995)......................................................................................................... 61Table 5.20: Refinery data in India for the TEMIS calculations, data for an international re-

finery and a comparison with values for an European refinery producing LPG ...... 63Table 5.21: Gas processing plants for the fractionating of natural gas in India (OIL 1995;

NEERI 1995; PETROTECH 1995)...................................................................... 65Table 5.22: Emission of air pollutants at the gas processing unit in Hazira from 8 to 10

stacks in 1992/93 and estimates for LNG combustion in the LCI(PETROTECH 1995)........................................................................................... 65

Table 5.23: Estimates for an Indian gas processing plant in the life cycle inventory.................. 66Table 5.24: Aggregated average data for all Indian bottling plants and specific data for one

plant in Duliajan ................................................................................................... 68Table 5.25: Data for hardcoal extraction in India..................................................................... 69Table 5.26: Data for power generation in North India ............................................................. 69Table 6.1: Data for an godown in New Delhi that distributes LPG ........................................ 71Table 6.2: Costs of kerosene in different cities for both types of retailers............................... 72Table 6.3: Data for wholesaling and retailing of kerosene in India ......................................... 72Table 7.1: Annual fuel consumption of Indian households (kg per household) ....................... 80Table 7.2: Quantity of fuel needed to provide a useful cooking energy of 1,000 MJ using

stove of different stated efficiencies (kg)............................................................... 80Table 7.3: Average efficiency of cookstoves using commercial fuels in India and the pre-

scribed standards.................................................................................................. 81

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Tables

Table 7.4: Ratio for the concentration of pollutants in the flue gases between the startingtime and the normal cooking session. Changes to the pollutant concentrationwith a higher power kerosene stove (LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER 1995) .................. 82

Table 7.5: Emission data for various kerosene cookstoves (mg/Nm³) and range of inves-tigated values in brackets...................................................................................... 83

Table 7.6: Estimates for three kerosene cookstoves in the LCI (mg/Nm³).............................. 83Table 7.7: Estimates of additional data for the kerosene cooking process .............................. 83Table 7.8: Emission data for LPG cookstoves, space heaters and estimates for the LCI......... 84Table 8.1: Transport of crude oil to India.............................................................................. 87Table 8.2: Transport of LPG in India .................................................................................... 88Table 8.3: Transport data for LPG distribution in India ......................................................... 88Table 8.4: Transport of kerosene in India.............................................................................. 89Table 8.5: Data for tankers and estimates (with a 50% load occupancy rate) ........................ 90Table 8.6: Ratios for the use of energy carriers (net and gross tonne per km) in different

years and estimates for the land use of rail transports............................................ 91Table 8.7: Energy use per tonne km in the Indian railway system and estimation for the

LCI ...................................................................................................................... 91Table 8.8: Estimation for a generic hardcoal combustion device for steam trains and

emission data for a diesel oil driven train .............................................................. 92Table 8.9: Emission data for diesel vehicles and energy use in India and Europe.................... 92Table 8.10: Emission data for Indian transport vehicles with an average load of 50% and a

comparison with data for Europe.......................................................................... 93Table 8.11: Data for the use of bikes as freight transport vehicles............................................ 95Table 9.1: Environmental profile for the supply of average (incl. Imports) and in India

produced LPG and kerosene to the consumer and comparison with the profileof diesel oil in Europe........................................................................................... 97

Table 9.2: Additional environmental burdens for the supply of one kg LPG or kerosene ifthe production of steel and cement is calculated with data for Germany(TEMIS 2.1) ........................................................................................................ 98

Table 9.3: Relevance of single processes and caused emissions (g) for selected indicatorsin the supply scenario for 1 kg of fuel ................................................................. 100

Table 9.4: Environmental profile for the cooking with LPG and kerosene in Dhanawas....... 105Table 9.5: Comparison of the profile for the mean cooking scenarios in India with data

for cooking possibilities in other studies ............................................................. 106Table 9.6: Main advantages in the comparison of qualitative indicators for the two fuels ..... 111Table 9.7: Total environmental burden of cooking with LPG and kerosene in India............. 114Table 9.8: Comparison of greenhouse gas emissions due to cooking with total emissions

in India (TEDDY 1994) ..................................................................................... 115

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Figures

Figure 1.1: India’s energy consumption and share by different sectors in percentages andMtoe for 1991/92. Total energy estimated (TEDDY 1994; PAULUS 1992).............. 2

Figure 1.2: Use of household fuels in India (TEDDY 1994) ..................................................... 3Figure 1.3: Percentage of household using a specific cooking fuel in urban and rural areas

(MODAK 1995) ...................................................................................................... 3Figure 1.4: Structure of a process module in TEMIS 2.0. The necessary information data

inputs and the results calculated by the program are shown. The obligatoryunit is given in brackets .......................................................................................... 7

Figure 2.1: Stages in the life cycle for liquefied petroleum gas and kerosene in India. Thearrow has a special head (as shown in the right bottom edge) if transportationis investigated between two stages........................................................................ 11

Figure 2.2: The location of Dhanawas (TERI 1994) ............................................................... 15Figure 4.1: Map of India’s potential sedimentary oil basins (OIL 1989) .................................. 25Figure 4.2: Drilling fluid circulation system and solid holding mechanism at an onshore

drilling site (VELCHAMY/SINGH/NEGI 1992).......................................................... 28Figure 4.3: Share of the consumption rate for drilling fluid additives in the western region

of ONGC (VELCHAMY/SINGH/NEGI 1992)............................................................ 29Figure 4.4: Solids generated and their distribution ratio (VELCHAMY/SINGH/NEGI 1992)......... 32Figure 5.1: Simplified process flow diagram for the Numaligarh refinery (NRL 1994) ............ 52Figure 5.2: Overall process flow chart for Hazira gas terminal (BATRA 1995)......................... 64Figure 6.1: Photo of a retail shop for kerosene in New Delhi .................................................. 73Figure 7.1: Photo of a cookstove distributor in New Delhi with pressurised cookstoves in

the foreground and packed wick stoves on the right hand side .............................. 74Figure 7.2: Typical oil pressure stove of the offset burner type (ISI 1982/05) ......................... 75Figure 7.3: Functional principle of a capillary-fed wick stove (ISI 1979/11)............................ 76Figure 7.4: Photo of a superior wick stove and its individual parts

(LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER 1995).......................................................................... 77Figure 7.5: Parts of an LPG installation (BPCL n.d.) .............................................................. 78Figure 7.6: Photo of an experiment with an LPG cookstove at the TERI laboratory ............... 81Figure 7.7: Substitution of energy carriers for cooking depending on the monthly per cap-

ita income (REDDY/REDDY 1994) ......................................................................... 86Figure 8.1: Photo of LPG-trucks waiting for cargo in front of a refinery in Bombay ............... 94Figure 8.2: Transport of LPG cylinders with a bicycle ............................................................ 95Figure 9.1: Environmental impacts in different sections of the life cycle .................................. 99Figure 9.2: Use of different fuels for the supply of LPG........................................................ 101Figure 9.3: Use of different fuels for the supply of SKO ....................................................... 101Figure 9.4: Comparison of the environmental burdens for LPG and kerosene ....................... 103Figure 9.5: Share of cookstove emissions and other impacts among the total impacts dur-

ing the life cycle ................................................................................................. 107Figure 9.6: Costs for stove and fuel in the different cooking scenarios with an output of

1,000 MJ of useful heat ...................................................................................... 108Figure 9.7: Comparison of the environmental impacts of the six cooking scenarios ............... 109Figure 9.8: Comparison of environmental impacts for different cooking scenarios ................ 113

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XIII

Zusammenfassung

In Indien hat der Energieverbrauch im Haushalt, und hier vor allem der Einsatz zum Kochen,einen Anteil von ca. 50% am gesamten Energieverbrauch. Traditionell werden überwiegendpflanzliche Materialien wie z.B. Holz, Erntereste und Dung zum Kochen verwendet. Zuneh-mend werden diese durch fossile Brennstoffe, vor allem Petroleum und Flüssiggas, ersetzt.

Die Verwendung der Biomasse-Brennstoffe führte in Indien zu einer Reihe von Problemen. ZurDeckung des Bedarfs wurden Teile des ursprünglichen Waldbestandes gerodet. Die brachlie-genden Flächen wurden durch nachfolgende Erosion irreversibel geschädigt. Das Kochen istdurch die Verbrennungsgase mit gesundheitlichen Gefahren für die Hausfrau verbunden. DieVerwendung von fossilen Brennstoffen führt zu Umweltschädigungen bei der Produktion undbeim Transport. Auch beim Kochen werden Schadstoffe, z.B. klimarelevante Gase freigesetzt.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit und in einer parallel durchgeführten Studie werden die Folgen desKochens in Indien über den gesamten Lebensweg der Brennstoffe in einer Ökobilanz untersucht.Die vorliegende Studie beschränkt sich dabei auf das Kochen mit den fossilen Brennstoffen Pe-troleum und Flüssiggas. LAUTERBACH (n.d.) untersucht die Verwendung von BiomasseBrennstoffen. Endprodukt und Vergleichseinheit für die Untersuchungen ist die durch das Ver-brennen bereitgestellte, zum Kochen nutzbare Wärme. Aufgrund der begrenzten Zeit und dereingeschränkten Datenlage ist die Ökobilanz hinsichtlich Anzahl der untersuchten Parameter undTiefe der Untersuchung limitiert.

Ziel ist es, in einem Vergleich unterschiedlicher Kochmöglichkeiten ökologische Vor- undNachteile der Varianten zu beleuchten und somit die Grundlage für eine ökologisch verträglicheWeichenstellung im Bereich des Kochens zu entwickeln.

Der Lebensweg der untersuchten fossilen Brennstoffe ist in vielen Punkten identisch. In der vor-liegenden Studie wurden für folgenden Prozeßschritte in Indien Sachbilanzen erarbeitet: Erdölund Erdgasförderung; Weiterverarbeitung von Öl in Raffinerien zu Petroleum, Flüssiggas undanderen Produkten; Produktion von Flüssiggas aus Erdgas in speziellen Anlagen; Umfüllungvon Flüssiggas in Flaschen; Lagerung, Transport und Verkauf der Produkte; Kochen mit Gasund Petroleum. Umweltfolgen die mit den notwendigen Importen verknüpft sind, wurden durchLiteraturangaben abgeschätzt

Die Untersuchung der umweltrelevanten Parameter Energieverwendung, Emissionen von Luft-und Wasserschadstoffen, Materialverbrauch und Flächeninanspruchnahme wurde ergänzt durchUntersuchungen zu den wirtschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen und den sozialen Begleiterschei-nungen des Kochens.

Die gefundenen Daten wurden in ein Format umgerechnet, das eine Weiterverarbeitung mit demComputerprogramm TEMIS 2.02 (Total Emission Model of Integrated Systems) ermöglicht.Mit diesem Programm wurden die quantifizierbaren Größen für verschiedene Szenarien sum-miert. Diese sind auf den Gebrauch der Brennstoffe in Dhanawas, einem kleinen Ort 45 km vonNew Delhi entfernt, hin ausgerichtet. Dies ermöglicht einen Vergleich der errechneten Ökopro-file mit den Ergebnissen der parallelen Studie. Die gewonnen Ergebnisse lassen einige interes-sante Rückschlüsse zu den Umweltfolgen des Kochens mit fossilen Brennstoffen zu:

2 Diese Daten können von einem FTP-server abgerufen werden: TELNET itu106.ut.tu-berlin.de, LOGIN ftp,PAßWORT ftp, CD india, LS -L, FTP eigener name, LOGIN eigener name, PAßWORT eigenes, PUT *.* *.*

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Zusammenfassung

Für die Bereitstellung wird ein Äquivalent von 18% des Energiegehalts der Brennstoffe aufge-wendet. Bis zur Lieferung von 1 kg Brennstoff an die VerbraucherInnen werden Treibhausgaseemittiert, die in ihrer Wirkung 740 g CO2 entsprechen. Die Bereitstellung von Flüssiggas ist invielen Punkten mit einer etwas niedrigeren Umweltbelastung als die Bereitstellung von Petrole-um, verbunden. Wasserschadstoffe werden z.B. zu 10% bis 60% weniger für die Bereitstellungeiner vergleichbaren Energiemenge emittiert. Die Umweltfolgen des Materialverbrauchs wurdennicht für Indien ermittelt. Da der Verbrauch an Stahl und Zement für Flüssiggas höher ist als fürPetroleum, könnten einige der gefundenen Unterschiede in einer ausführlicheren Untersuchungrelativiert werden.

Einer überraschend großen Anteil an der ökologischen Last tragen die notwendigen Transporte.Sie haben einen Anteil von um die 30% an den Schadgasemissionen bis zur Übergabe derBrennstoffe an die Haushalte. Begründet ist dies durch die weiten Entfernungen von den Pro-duktionsstätten bis zu den VerbraucherInnen und durch die hohen Umweltbelastungen währenddes Transports von importierten Energieträgern in Tankschiffen.

Die ökologischen Vorteile von Flüssiggas werden deutlicher wenn der Kochvorgang in die Be-trachtung einbezogen wird. Das Gas kann sauberer und effizienter in nutzbare Wärme umge-wandelt werden. Die über den Lebensweg zusammengefaßte Energie Effizienz beträgt für Gas54% wenn ein Kocher mit 64% Effizienz angenommen wird. Für Petroleum Kocher mit 54%Effizienz ist der Wert 46%. Die Ergebnisse der Sachbilanzen wurden für die Bereitstellung von1 Gigajoule nutzbarer Wärme berechnet. Ungefähr 250 kg Wasser werden hierfür im Lebens-zyklus von Gas verwendet. Der Wert für die Verwendung von Petroleum ist 420 kg. Die Emis-sion von Öl wurde mit 6.2 g für Gas und 15 g für Petroleum errechnet.

Obwohl der Hauptverbrauch an Energie dem Kochen direkt zuzuordnen ist, zeigt die durchge-führte Ökobilanz, daß ein nicht unerheblicher Anteil der Umweltbelastungen mit der Herstellungund dem Transport der Brennstoffe verbunden ist. Wasserbelastungen z.B. fallen vor allem wäh-rend der Ressourcengewinnung und in Raffinerien an. Auch hinsichtlich einige Luftschadstoffeist der Lebensabschnitt bis zur Übergabe an die EndverbraucherInnen umweltbelastender als daseigentliche Kochen. Kohlenwasserstoffe werden nur zu etwa 20% - 30% und NOX nur zu 45%während des Kochens emittiert. Die Emissionen von Staub und SO2 im Lebenszyklus von Flüs-siggas fallen zu über 90% vor der eigentlichen Verwendung an. Dies zeigt wie notwendig es ist,den gesamten Lebenslauf für einen ökologischen Vergleich von Kochmöglichkeiten zu betrach-ten.

Im Vergleich qualitativer Parameter spricht für Gas z.B. die leichtere Verwendung und die ge-ringeren Gesundheitsrisiken. Petroleum ist geringer subventioniert. Der Preis für das Kochenhängt wesentlich von der Effizienz des benutzten Kochers ab. Kochen mit subventioniertemPetroleum ist billiger als das mit ebenfalls subventioniertem Gas oder frei erhältlichem Petrole-um.

Die durch das Kochen insgesamt emittierte CO2 Menge entspricht in etwa 3.8% der totalenEmissionen in Indien. Ein Vergleich der für Indien gültigen Ergebnisse mit Daten zum Kochenin Deutschland zeigt, daß das weitverbreitete elektrische Kochen in puncto Energieverbrauchund Emission von einigen Luftschadstoffen deutlich umweltbelastender ist als die in Indien ge-bräuchlichen Alternativen. Weitere interessante Ergebnisse sind durch den Vergleich mit derÖkobilanz für Biomasse Brennstoffe zu erwarten. Durch die vorliegende Arbeit wurden wohlerstmals Teile des Energiesektors in Indien in einer ökologischen Betrachtung untersucht. Diegewonnen Daten können als Grundlage für weitere Studien verwendet werden. Die Datengrund-lage für den Bereich der Raffinerien und des Transports kann dabei als relativ gesichert gelten.Weitere Untersuchungen sind wünschenswert für den Bereich der Erdöl- und Gas- Gewinnung,für die Materialproduktion und über die Transportdistanzen.

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Summary

The use of different fuels for cooking is one of the most important sectors for energy use in In-dia. The residential use and here mainly the cooking has a share of about 50% of the total en-ergy use. The main energy carriers for cooking are traditional fuels gained from biomass sourceslike wood, agricultural wastes and dung. But the customs are changing and commercial fuelslike kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) are used in a rising share.

The use of biomass fuels is linked with hazards for the Indian environment and with problemsfor the society. Parts of the former forests were rooted out for the use as firewood and the landwas farther irreversibly destroyed by erosion. Due to the emission of air pollutants during thecooking, the use of biomass fuels is linked with health risks for the cooks. The use of alternativefossil fuels is not free from problems. The extraction, the processing and the necessary trans-ports lead to environmental hazards before the use of the fuels. Emission of greenhouse gasesand other pollutants due to the cooking also leads to risks for the environment.

The study in hand and a parallel executed work by LAUTERBACH (n.d.) investigate the use ofdifferent cooking fuels in a life cycle assessment. This study is limited on the use of keroseneand liquefied petroleum gas as cooking fuels. The parallel study looks on biomass fuels. Endproduct for the assessment is the useful heat for cooking that is delivered by burning the fuels.The life cycle assessment is restricted regarding the number of investigated indicators and thedepth of the survey.

The goal of these studies is to compare different types of cooking and their ecological advan-tages and disadvantages over the whole life cycle. This information can serve as a base for envi-ronmental sound policy decisions in India for the field of cooking.

The life cycle of the two fuels is identical in many points. This study investigates the situation inIndia in life cycle inventories for the following stages: Extraction of the resources crude oil andnatural gas; processing of crude oil in refineries to LPG, kerosene and other products; extrac-tion of LPG from natural gas in fractionating plants; bottling of LPG in bottling plants; distribu-tion and transport of the fuels; cooking with LPG and kerosene. Environmental impacts causedby the necessary imports of products are considered in the inventory using literature data.

The environmental burdens are comprehended for a limited list of indicators in the categoriesenergy use, emissions of air and water pollutants, use of materials and land. This is supple-mented by a reflection on the economic conditions and the social consequences during the lifecycle.

The data were compiled into a format that made it possible to calculate the overall impacts withthe computer program TEMIS 2.03 (Total emission model of integrated systems). The resultsfor different scenarios of fuel supply and cooking were calculated with this program. The envi-ronmental impacts are summarised in final calculated ecological profiles for the two fuels. Thesescenarios were adopted for a cooking session in Dhanawas, a little rural village 45 km awayfrom New Delhi. This was necessary to compare the results of this study with the study onbiomass fuels. The comparison of LPG and kerosene leads to some interesting results:

3These data are available on a FTP-server: TELNET itu106.ut.tu-berlin.de, LOGIN ftp, PASS ftp, CD india, LS -L, FTP

own name, LOGIN own name, PASS own, PUT *.* *.*

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The production of the two fuels requires an energy input of about 18% of the energy content.The production and supply of 1 kg fuel is linked with an emission of greenhouse gases that iscomparable to 740 g CO2. The supply of LPG to the consumer is more environmentally soundthan this of kerosene for the majority of investigated indicators. Effluents and water pollutantsare emitted about 10% to 60% more for the supply of kerosene than for a comparable amountof LPG. The environmental impacts of material production were not investigated for India. Dueto the higher demand of steel and cement for the production of LPG some differences betweenthe two fuels might be lower than calculated in this study.

A surprisingly high share of the environmental burdens for the fuels is caused by the transportprocesses. One reason is the high distance in India between the points of resource exploitationand the final use of the end consumers. The other reason is the import of resources and productswith tankers into the country. The transports have a share of about 30% for emissions of airpollutants until the delivery to the household.

The environmental advantage of LPG is more obvious if cooking is included in the environ-mental profile. Cooking with gas has a higher efficiency and causes fewer emissions of air pol-lutants. The total energy efficiency of the life cycle is 54% for an LPG cookstove with 64% ef-ficiency. The comparable value for a kerosene stove with 54% efficiency is 46%. The total im-pacts of cooking were compared for 1 gigajoule output of useful heat. About 250 kg and 420 kgof water are used for this cooking heat output with LPG and kerosene respectively. This cook-ing scenario is linked with an emission of 6.2 g and 15 g oil & grease in the case of LPG andkerosene respectively.

Even if cooking consumes most of the necessary energy, some parts of the upper life cycle areresponsible for a high share on the total environmental burden. Water pollutants for example areonly emitted during the extraction and processing of the fuels. But also some air pollutants areemitted in high share before the consumption of the fuels. Cooking causes only 45% of NOX andless than 25% of hydrocarbon emissions. Particulates and SO2 are emitted in a share of over90% of the total emissions due to the supply of LPG to the consumer. The results show that isnecessary to consider the total emissions during the life cycle for an evaluation of the environ-mental impacts of kerosene and LPG.

Also the comparison of qualitative indicators shows some advantages for LPG. These are forexample the easier product use and the lower health risks. Kerosene needs today less subsidies.The price of cooking depends on the efficiency of the used cookstoves. Cooking with subsidisedkerosene is the cheapest possibility. Using LPG or non-subsidised kerosene is linked with com-parable costs.

Cooking with the two possibilities in India emitted as much as 3.8% of the total carbon dioxideemissions in the country. A comparison of the results for India with common cooking possibili-ties in Germany points out another interesting fact. The widespread use of electricity for cook-ing has a higher energy intensity and higher emissions for most of the investigated air pollutants.

Further results can be expected after a comparison with the study on biomass fuels. The study inhand probably investigates for the first time parts of the Indian energy sector in a life cycle as-sessment. The found data are also useful as a base for other studies in the energy sector. Thedata for transports and refineries are reliable. More investigation would be useful for the petro-leum extraction, the transport distances and the material production.

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Page 1

1 Introduction

This chapter contains some preliminary background for the study. Facts about Indian societyand the energy sector are described. The methodology for the study is deduced and the advanceis explained.

1.1 India’s Society and Economy

Table 1.1 gives some important statistical factors concerning society and economy of India.With a per capita income of US $2901 India belongs to the ”Least Developed Countries”. Theindustrial and service sectors shows disproportional fast growth rates, but this is not a solutionfor India’s poverty problems. Due to the still high population growth rate the efforts to increasethe GNP2 have not led to higher per capita income. The devaluation of the Indian rupee in com-parison to the US dollar has resulted in a decline in the GNP per capita. The economic and so-cial circumstances present large differences in the living conditions of people of different classes(MANOMARA 1995; PAULUS 1992).

Table 1.1: Social and economic indicators for India

Area 3,287,263 km²Population (mid 1994) 897 millionAnnual population growth rate (1990 to 1995) 1.9 %Urban population (1992) 26 %Rural population (1992) 74 %Population density 267 people/km²Per capita GNP (1993) 290 US $Growth of GNP (at 1980/81 prices) 5 %Inflation rate (September 1994) 9.1 %Fiscal deficit of the central government 7.3 % of GNPCurrent account deficit 1.8 % of GNPPer capita yearly consumption of commercial energy (1992) 235 kgoe3

Sources: Manomara 1995; TEDDY 1994; Paulus 1992

In terms of goods produced, India is one of the 10 leading nations in the world and manufac-tures satellites, computers and nuclear power plants. Statistics show that 40 million people(4.5% of the Indian population) live with a family income of more than US $30,000 a year. Amiddle class of 250 million people (27.9%) passes into a consumer-oriented life style. On theother hand a 60% majority of the Indian people are still living in traditional economic structures.For them consumption begins and ends with a daily meal, if they are lucky. They do not benefitfrom the new achievements. Today, about 360 million people live below the poverty line. Thelevel of poverty rose to 40 per cent in 1992 from the 1989/904 figure of 34 per cent (INDIA

TODAY 1995; MANOMARA 1995).

1January 1995: US $1 = Rs 31 = DM 1.50 (German mark)2GNP - Gross national product: The total monetary value of final goods and services produced in a country3kgoe - kilogram of oil equivalent4Statistical data in India are prepared yearly for the period April to March.

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1 Introduction

1.2 Energy Scene in IndiaAbout 55% of India’s total energy requirement is supplied by commercial energy. That is elec-tricity and fossil fuels that are bought by the consumer. The rest is contributed by non-commercial energy carriers. These are biomass fuels that are normally collected by the usersthemselves. The use of commercial energy at 235 kgoe per year and per capita is low in com-parison to the developed countries with values of approximately 5,000 kgoe/a (TEDDY 1994).

The country has witnessed a rapid growth in energy needs owing to industrialisation and thechanging demographic profile. A balance for the commercial energy availability and its con-sumption is shown in Table 1.2. In the years from 1981/82 to 1991/92 the commercial availableenergy increased from 101 Mtoe5 to 194 Mtoe. One third of this available energy was lost dur-ing conversion and transmission. Thus the total energy consumption in 1991/92 was 131 Mtoe(TEDDY 1994; WSN 1994).

Table 1.2: Commercial energy balance (Mtoe) for 1991/92 (TEDDY 1994)

Coal Crudeoil

NaturalGas

Electricity Petroleumproducts

Totalcommercial

energy

%Energy

Production 112.4 30.3 16 6.6 - 165.3 85.34%Imports-(Exports + Stockchanges)

-0.2 21.1 00

7.5 28.4 14.66%

Availability 112.2 51.4 16 6.6 7.5 193.7 100.00%Conversion, Transmission, Distribution, etc.

32.83%

Consumption 50.7 0 5.9 17.5 56 130.1 67.17%

Figure 1.1 shows the energy balance in India for the main sectors taking into account the avail-ability of commercial energy (194 Mtoe) and the estimated total energy use (350 Mtoe). Mainusers of commercial energy are the industrial and the transport sectors. The household sector isthe largest consumer of energy in India if all energy carriers are considered. It accounts for 40%to 50% of total energy consumption; That is 10 per cent of the commercial energy consumed(TEDDY 1994).

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Figure 1.1: India’s energy consumption and share by different sectors in percentages and Mtoe for 1991/92.Total energy estimated (TEDDY 1994; PAULUS 1992)

5Mtoe - Million tonnes of oil equivalent

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1 Introduction

The proportion of the total residential energy use for cooking (including water and space heat-ing) is 90% in rural and about 80% in urban areas is the main purpose. Thus cooking consumesabout 35% to 45% of the total energy used in India. In developed countries cooking consumesless than 10 per cent of total national fuel consumption (AGARWAL/NARAIN 1990; TEDDY1994).

Figure 1.2 shows by proportion the use of the different household fuels in India. The bulk ofenergy consumption in households consists of biomass (non-commercial) fuels, such as fire-wood (59%), dung (20%) and agricultural residues (14%). The main commercial energy carriersfor residential use are kerosene and LPG (liquefied petroleum gas). Together these two have a5.2% share of the energy consumed in households. This amounts to 79% of the total commer-cial energy consumption of 13.1 Mtoe in 1991/92. LPG consumption grew at annual rate ofover 16% and this of kerosene by 6% between 1984/85 and 1991/92 (TEDDY 1994).

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Total energy use: 178 Mtoe

Firewood58.6%

Dung20.5%

Crop residues14.0%

LPG 1.3%

Kerosene3.9%

Others1.8%

Figure 1.2: Use of household fuels in India (TEDDY 1994)

The main factors in the choice of fuels are family income and availability. TEDDY (1994) de-scribes the situation for 1978/79. Low income households use mainly biomass fuels. Kerosenehas the highest distribution in the lower-middle class group and LPG, which is not used by thelowest income group has a share of over 40% in the highest income group (TEDDY 1994).

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26.9% 23.6%32.7%

3.5%6.2%1.2% 1.3%

19.6%

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Others LPG Kerosene Firewood Dung

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Figure 1.3: Percentage of household using a specific cooking fuel in urban and rural areas (MODAK 1995)

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Page 4

1 Introduction

There is also a big difference between rural and urban energy users. The different distributionfor the used cooking fuels is shown in Figure 1.3. Over 90% of the rural households use tra-ditional fuels for cooking. In the low income rural households half of the commercial fuels areused for lighting. LPG is usually not available in these areas (MODAK 1995; TEDDY 1994).

In urban areas over 60% of the used energy is delivered by commercial fuels, but here also theshare of traditional fuels is still high. Kerosene meets 24% and LPG 27% of the total re-quirement. Urban households use the LPG exclusively for cooking and water heating. Cookingwith a share of 70% is also the main use of kerosene in urban areas. About 8% of the keroseneis burnt for lighting and 20% is used for water heating (MODAK 1995; TEDDY 1994).

The heavy dependence on biomass fuels has lead to several health- and ecological problems inIndia. The depletion of natural forest leads to soil erosion. Due to the depletion of traditionalfuelwood resources, people burn more, and lower quality fuels such as twigs, crop residues andanimal dung. The time taken by the women to search for fuelwood increases with the depletionof the resources. Emissions of the cookstove are hazardous for the cooking woman and theirfamily (CFSAE 1985; TEDDY 1994).

The shift to the commercial household fuels brings many benefits to people. The use of modernfuels avoids some of the health risks of cooking, but result in higher environmental costs. Theresources of these fuels are not renewable. The burning of fossil fuels contributes to the globalwarming due to the resultant emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The im-port of these fuels adds greatly to the already heavy burden on scarce resources of capital andforeign exchange in India (CFSAE 1985; TEDDY 1994).

For India these facts lead to the statement (CFSAE 1982):

„Energy for cooking in households constitutes half of India’s total energyconsumption. No other form of energy use has greater impact on the environ-ment or is more crucial for human survival.“

1.3 Life Cycle Assessment as an Analytical Instrument for Environmental PolicyExisting research work concentrates on particular aspects of cooking, for example deforestationor health risks. The broad differences of the existing cooking possibilities and the discussionabout their advantages and disadvantages led to the idea to compare their environmental effectsover the whole life-cycle. An investigation of the environmental effects during the productionand the use of the fuels can contribute discussions about the direction of future developments.

The methodological technique adopted for the investigation is a life cycle assessment6 (LCA).It has been developed in recent years to analyse and understand the full natural resource andenvironmental effects of using a product. The LCA is defined by the Society of EnvironmentalToxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) as „... an objective process to evaluate the environmentalburdens associated with a product, package, process or activity“ (POSTLETHWAITE 1994). Theprocess involves:

• Identifying and quantifying energy consumed, material used and waste discharged to theenvironment

• Assessing the impact on the environment of those energy and material uses and wastereleases

• Identifying ways to reduce the environmental impacts (additional in some studies)

6Some authors use also the term life cycle analysis.

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1 Introduction

This methodology is a further development of the product related environmental policy of theNineteen Seventies and Eighties in the industrialised countries. The policy of looking on singleaspects of a product was replaced by a global view on all environmental effects (UBA 1992/07).

LCA’s and similar studies have possessed a more diverse set of goals: Scientists tried to identifyall the environmental impacts of a product. Manufacturers tried to prove that their products arethe most environmental friendly ones. They used the results for advertising and to improve theirproduction processes. Governmental organisations used it as a tool for environmental policy.

Subjects of former LCA’s were packing materials, chemical products, construction materials orenergy systems. Different formal names are given for LCA’s and they employ different method-ologies. Results for a product often vary considerably depending on the investigated indicators,the modules of the life cycle and the weighing given to the effects.

Various national and international organisations are making attempts to standardise and har-monise the concepts7 without final results (WEIDEMA/CHRISTIANSEN 1994). Essential parts of anLCA as defined by most of them are goal definition, life cycle inventory (LCI), environmentalimpact assessment and evaluation of the results (BERG ET AL. 1994; DIN 1994; POS-

TLETHWAITE 1994; UBA 1992/07).

The goal definition is a basic requirement to clearly define the exact investigatory purpose ofthe LCA. Objectives and the target group of the study are named. The underlying necessity isdescribed and a definition for a functional unit of the product is made. The system is described.The investigated life cycle should include all necessary modules for resource extraction, produc-tion, distribution, consumption or use and waste management. The necessary transport of goodsand materials are also subject of the investigation. A list of indicators that should be investigatedis set up. Indicators are mainly quantifiable values for environmental pollution. Qualitative indi-cators, for example noise, are not considered in all studies because it is difficult to summarisethem over the life cycle. Only the methodology of Produktlinienanalyse or „product line as-sessment“ (ÖKO 1987) examines economic and social indicators. Definitions are made for thesystem boundaries: time, location, depth and cut-off criteria.

A balance sheet is made in the life cycle inventory (LCI) of all in- and outputs in the variousstages of the life cycle. The flow of energy and materials between the environment and the ex-amined system is compiled. The effects to the environment are described for all modules. This isdescribed as the vertical analysis. The values for the indicators are calculated or compiled togive the following horizontal analysis. This step takes into account life cycle criteria like recy-cling or life time.

The environmental impact assessment is the next step. The possible effects are described andassessed by the list of indicators. These include all local and global effects on different aspects ofthe environment for example water and air pollution, global warming or resource depletion.

An evaluation of the results of the life cycle inventory and the assessed impacts is the final partof the LCA. Criteria for the valuation must be described. They should be generally accepted.The single indicators are weighed and ranked with the end goal to decide which product has theleast overall adverse impact on the environment. Political decisions are prepared.

The process of valuation is the most discussed and the least standardised stage of the LCA.Some authors tried to comprehend all resulting effects in a single value by standardisation of theeffects. Other authors give weigh to the effects in a verbal discussion. However, the relative

7These are e.g. ISO-SAGE (The International Standards Organisation Strategic Advisory Group), CEN (Comité

Européen de Normalisation), SETAC (Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry) and the GermanInstitute for Standardisation (DIN).

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importance of one impact category to another is a matter of value judgement, reflecting socialvalues and preferences. Consensus has not yet been established any common basis for achievingor rationalising such judgements. And it seems difficult establishing such consensus in the futurebecause the judgement depends on the personal value system of the researcher.

SETAC suggests an evaluation of the weak points of the life cycle and potentials for furtherimprovements as an other essential part defined as improvement assessment. The effect of fur-ther developments or the influx of specific unsure data is evaluated in a sensitivity analysis.

The parts of the LCA are not executed in a straight succession. An LCA is a process with thenecessity for an evaluation of the done parts at a given time. For the iterative process a continu-ously forward and backward move between preceding and following modules is essential (BERG

ET AL. 1994; DIN 1994).

1.4 Use of the Computer Program TEMIS as a Tool for the AssessmentFor the life cycle assessment all information about energy use, waste, emissions of air and waterpollutants as well as material demands are collected. To compare different products, the investi-gated environmental impacts are calculated in a comparable way, in relation to a finished prod-uct. For this survey the computer program TEMIS 2.0 (Total Emissions Model for IntegratedSystems) was used as a tool to do the necessary calculations (TEMIS 2.0, 2.1).

This program was developed by the German non-governmental Öko-Institut and the Environ-mental Systems Research Group at the University of Kassel. The Öko-Institute has collectedavailable comparative information on environmental aspects for Germany8. Due to the crossboundary interdependence of national energy systems, parts of the original database reflectprocesses in other countries. The program and database should offer an analytic tool for deci-sion makers in energy policy (FRITSCHE 1991/11; GEMIS 2.0).

It is possible to calculate the environmental effects of different energy scenarios with TEMIS.These scenarios consist of a certain amount of energy to be delivered by a mix of energy sys-tems. The user can define and adapt the scenarios to different needs (FRITSCHE 1991/11).

The model does not only include emissions from the operation of energy facilities, but considersall ”upstream” activities. Beside the emissions of pollutants, other aspects like land use, costs,materials used, residuals, etc. are included in the program. The emissions of greenhouse gasesare compiled to CO2-equivalents. The TEMIS version 2.0 is available as public domain softwarein both English and German9 (FRITSCHE 1991/11; GEMIS 2.0; ÖKO 1993/3, 1993/12, 1994/12;TEMIS 2.0, 2.1).

To run the program data on the fuels used and the processes involved are required. The energycarriers are described with their contents of elements. TEMIS calculates the heating values fromthis information. Figure 1.4 shows all information that must be collected for each process inorder to calculate the emissions and impacts of the process. The life cycle system is brokendown into a series of inter-linked operations. Each of these processes is connected through in-and output products or through the auxiliary fuels and materials. The impacts are handled overas a burden of the output product to the following module in the life cycle. All calculations forenvironmental impacts are related to the energy content (lower heating value) of the specific

8These were first used in GEMIS 2.0 (Gesamt-Emissions-Modell Integrierter Systeme) and then translated for

the English version TEMIS.9TEMIS 2.0 can be received with an FTP (file transfer protocol) server via the INTERNET in the following way:

open ftp.hrz.uni-kassel.de, Login: anonymous, Password: (email address), cd /pub/envsys/temis, get (all files).These data are available on a FTP-server: TELNET itu106.ut.tu-berlin.de, LOGIN ftp, PASS ftp, CD india, LS -L,FTP own name, LOGIN own name, PASS own, PUT *.* *.* Use pkunzip.exe for extracting the files

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product. The calculations made for auxiliary materials are related to the weight (TEMIS 2.0;ÖKO 1993/3, 1993/12, 1994/12).

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Process

Extraction CombustionConversion Transport

Input Product or Resource

(MJ) or (g)

Auxiliary Energy(MJ/MJ), (MJ/g) or

(MJ/tkm)

Output Product(MJ) or (g)

Resulting Impacts Energy use (MJ)

Emissions (g)Materials (g)Resources (g)

Land use (m²a)

Emission Factors(kg/TJ)

(mg/Nm³)

General DataCapacity (MW)

Costs (Rs)Efficiency (%)Material (g)Life time (a)Load (h/a)

Land use (m²)

Auxiliary Materials(g/MJ) or (g/g)

Figure 1.4: Structure of a process module in TEMIS 2.0. The necessary information data inputs and the resultscalculated by the program are shown. The obligatory unit is given in brackets

Nm³ - Norm cubic metres (used for standardised values of emission data)

1.5 Collecting of Data and Participating OrganisationsThe information necessary to prepare the life cycle inventory was gathered during a five-monthsstay (November 1994 to April 1995) in the TATA Energy Research Institute (TERI), NewDelhi, India. This non-governmental institute was set up in 1974 to tackle the problems thathumankind is likely to face because of the gradual depletion of the earth’s finite energy re-sources and the existing methods of their use.

The work in India included:

• Screening of the available information from reports prepared by the Institute

• Interviews with people of the institute concerned with this subject

• Visits to the laboratory, the library and field research sites

• Visit to the INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENERGY and the PETROTECHconference and exhibition held in New Delhi

• Visits to other Research Institutes

• Interviews with experts from governmental bodies and public enterprises

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This chapter contains definitions needed for the carrying out of the life cycle inventory (LCI).The systematic manner follows the proposals made by BERG ET AL. (1994), DIN (1994), UBA(1992/7), POSTLETHWAITE (1994) and FLEISCHER/RINGE (1992).

2.1 Target Group and Objectives of the StudyThe purpose of this study is to discuss environmental advantages and disadvantages of differentcooking possibilities typically used in India. Cooking is an interesting field to apply the instru-ment of an LCA in India because of its great significance to the energy balance. The suggestionsmade for an LCA by SETAC or other organisations represent a high demand. To satisfy thesedemands scientists normally require several years of time, even if they work in countries with aneasier access to compiled data than in India. Thus, only a restricted life cycle assessment isproposed here. It will look at all stages from the resource extraction down to the consumptionof the fuels. The main subject of investigation is the life cycle inventory. Many criteria are cutoff because it was not possible to investigate them sufficiently during the limited time in India.

The purpose of the study is to provide arguments for discussions about the advantages and dis-advantages of different means of cooking. This study is addressed to people who are interestedin the environmental impacts but also the economic and social aspects of cooking. Policymakersin both energy policy and the environmental policy should gain from this study. Further on, thestudy might be interesting for people who deal with the environmental impacts of the energysector and especially the petroleum sector. The focus of the study is India but the situation inother developing countries might be comparable and therefore the investigation might also befound helpful.

2.2 Description of the Underlying NecessityThe subject of this investigation is the activity of cooking food and heating water on cookstovesin Indian households. The investigation is focused on all the environmental impacts that are con-nected with this activity. The underlying requirement for this activity is the heating of food anddrinks for the preparation of meals. All over the world, cooking is an old practice. The reasonsare many. Some fruit, vegetables, cereals and meat must be cooked to make them edible or toimprove their taste. Water and other foods are cooked for hygienic reasons, i.e. to kill germs.Both cooking and eating together are social acts, influenced by traditions and religious prac-tices.

The cooking practices in India are not uniform. It varies from place to place according to differ-ent traditions. The practices also depend on the living conditions of the family, for exampleworking hours, age of children and available income. Here are two examples: Farmer families inGuntur district, Andhra Pradesh, followed the meal pattern: coffee - early lunch - snack & tea -dinner meal. After the early meal they work in the fields. For the lower income status the mostpopular practice is early lunch - mid-day meal - dinner meal. These people carry their mid-daydish to the workplace (NEERAJA/VENKATA 1991).

For most of the meals some form of cooking is necessary. This is in contrast to the „continental“or „western“ style of meals, in which one or two meals mainly consist of cold food. For practicalreasons, they are sometimes cooked with an earlier meal and than subsequently eaten cold.

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2.3 Selection of Product Variants for the InvestigationBefore starting an LCA the product variants to be investigated are defined. A neutral or zerooption should be investigated for every LCA. In this case a scenario with no cooking might betheoretically possible, but due to strong traditions this does not appear to be a practical meansof meeting the demand for food in India. Thus the investigation is restricted to several possibili-ties which deliver heat for cooking. They can be broadly divided into three variants:

• Cooking in a traditional way with biomass fuels. These are fuelwood, charcoal, animaldung, agricultural wastes, etc. In most cases they are collected by the users. This has ledto the expression non-commercial fuels. A new possibility in this field is the cookingwith biogas or gobargas (Indian expression) produced in plants from animal dung oragricultural wastes. Cooking with vegetable oil belongs also to this category.

• Cooking with the commercial fuels LPG, kerosene and coal. They are based on non-renewable resources. The fuels are bought by the user. Another possibility, that is sel-dom utilised in India, is cooking with electricity.

• Cooking with new technologies. These possibilities do not burn a fuel and they arebased on renewable energy. In the main this is cooking with solar cookers. Other pos-sibilities might be the use of electricity generated by wind, solar power or hydropower.

The life cycle assessment for cooking fuels in India is divided into two parts, undertaken at thesame time by two researchers. This study is focused on the most important commercial fuels. Asecond study, undertaken by LAUTERBACH (n.d.), looks at the biomass fuels. The results of thelife cycle inventory for both types of fuels shall be compared in the report of LAUTERBACH.

The investigation for commercial fuels is restricted to LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) and SKO(superior kerosene oil). These two are the most used commercial fuels. It is relatively easy tohandle them in one study because the life cycle is analogous at several stages. Due to the limitedtime available for the investigation the assessment could not be extended to other fuels like coalor electricity. Most surveys in the field of cooking describe LPG and kerosene (to a lesser de-gree) as the least polluting fuels1 (EPA 1992; KULKARNI ET AL. 1994; RAIYANI ET AL. 1993;REDDY/REDDY 1994; SMITH n.d.; SMITH ET AL. 1994). This statement is based on the ambientair situation in the kitchen and the emission of greenhouse gases due to the cooking. Thus, thesecommercial fuels are the most important ones for an LCA.

2.4 Definition of the Functional UnitTo serve the necessity of a cooked meal heating energy is required. The energy demanded tocook one dish depends not only on the type and energy content of the fuel, but also on the effi-ciency (eta) of the cookstove used. The efficiency states the ratio between the energy that isuseful for cooking and the theoretical energy delivered by the fuel. This leads to the definitionof the functional unit as effective heating energy delivered by burning the fuel. The SI2 unit tomeasure energy is Joule3 (J). The purpose of the LCI is to calculate environmental impacts inrelation to a specific amount of effective heating energy delivered by burning the investigatedfuel.

1This statement is limited to the field of fired appliances. Solar heaters have no direct emissions of air pollutantsin the kitchen.

2SI - Système International, International system of units of measurement. This study uses SI units.3The meaning of this abstract unit can be described with an example: To heat one kg (one litre) of water from20°C to 100°C a useful heating energy of 334 kJ is required.

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2.5 Life Cycle of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and KeroseneThe life cycles for the two fuels LPG and kerosene are shown in Figure 2.1. Boxes that compiledifferent streams to one are virtual processes to explain the origin of the available amount of aproduct.

The original resource for the production of kerosene and LPG is crude oil. LPG is also derivedfrom natural gas. These resources are extracted in India from onshore and offshore sources. Theinvestigation concentrates on both the exploration activities and on the following exploitation ofthe resources. Crude oil is also imported with tankers into the country. All these aspects of thelife cycle are termed the upstream sector.

The resources are transported by pipeline or with tankers to the processing facilities. The trans-portation and connected aspects of the life cycle are investigated for the LCI in a separatechapter.

The crude oil is processed in refineries. LPG and kerosene are two of the possible products. Ingas processing plants LPG and other gases are extracted from the natural gas. LPG and kero-sene are also imported in bulk by means of tankers from foreign refineries and processing plants.For cooking purposes the LPG is filled into steel-cylinders at bottling plants. These plants re-ceive the product by rail or road tanker trucks. All the processing steps are summarised in thedownstream sector.

The LPG-bottles are delivered to the retailers of the marketing organisations by road trucks.From the retailers they are transported to the end user by a variety of vehicles. The gas is burntfor cooking or lighting. The empty bottles are returned in the same way to the bottling plant byemployees of the marketing organisations to be used again.

Kerosene is brought to the wholesaler by train or road tanker trucks. The latter are also used totransport the fuel from the storage of the wholesaler to the retailer. The retailer stores it in bar-rels. The product is refilled into containers brought by the customers. They use it for cooking orother purposes (e.g. lighting).

The waste management is not considered in this main life cycle because the product is burnt.There is no direct waste left following consumption. Waste is produced at some stages of thelife cycle and the waste management is accordingly described there.

2.6 Investigated Indicators and their MeaningEnvironmental pollution can be identified by many analytical indicators. Some of these indica-tors can be quantified and added over the life cycle, e.g. the amount of effluent. This is notpossible for indicators like noise, because they must be seen in the context of a particular loca-tion. Investigations on social or economic impacts describe the quality of a certain situation inwords. They cannot be the subject of a calculation.

The investigation for an LCA should be focused on a list of indicators that describe an importantimpact. Data should be available for the whole life-cycle of the compared processes in a compa-rable accuracy. A proposed list of indicators is given by HUNT (n.d.). The choice of indicatorsfor this report was influenced by regulations for emissions from production sites in India. Tomake general estimations, enough data were available only for pollutants that are subject ofthese regulations.

The following indicators are investigated in the study. They are necessary for the structure ofTEMIS as shown in figure 1.4. The indicators are considered in TEMIS as products. The de-scription starts with quantifiable impacts:

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Extraction Offshore

Fractionating Plant

Cooking with Kerosene

Extraction Onshore

Refinery

Foreign Extraction

LPG: Kerosene:

AmountCrude Oil

Amount Natural Gas

Upstream

Downstream

Distribution

Consumption

Retailer

Foreign Refinery

Re-use of LPG-bottles:

Amount KeroseneAmount LPG

Wholesaler

Transportstep:

Retailer

Bottling Plant

Cooking with LPG

Figure 2.1: Stages in the life cycle for liquefied petroleum gas and kerosene in India. The arrow has a specialhead (as shown in the right bottom edge) if transportation is investigated between two stages

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Energy use is classified by the quantity and type of the burnt fuels or the electricity used. Maincategories of the fuels are solid, gaseous and liquid. They are described in chapter 3.2. For thecalculations, assumptions are made about the average composition and type of the used fuels.The use of human power is also investigated but this energy use is not summed up for the LCI.

Materials are an input in the life cycle. Investigated materials are water, chemicals, steel andcement. The indicator water describes the use of ground, river, lake and sea water for produc-tion, cleaning and cooling. It does not include formation water, that is lifted up with the crudeoil and natural gas and that is re-injected in the same production step. The generic indicatorchemicals describes the use of chemical substances in the processes. The chemicals vary consid-erably in their attributes, e.g. energy requirement for their production or hazards for the envi-ronment. It was not possible to specify the chemicals further, due to the high number of differ-ent categories. Steel and cement are used as construction materials for the processing facilities,transport devices and as materials for the cookstoves. Other materials used in these productionfacilities are not considered in the LCI.

Water pollution is one sector to describe the environmental impacts of an activity. One indica-tor in this study is the discharged effluent. This includes the discharge of cooling water. Efflu-ents are only evaluated if they are discharged into rivers and sea or irrigation schemes. Evapo-rated or re-injected effluents are not considered. The pollution is described by the indicatorsBOD (biochemical oxygen demand usually in 5 days) and COD (chemical oxygen demand) togive the impact on the oxygen balance in the receiving water body. Total dissolved solids (TDS)and total suspended solids (TSS) are sum indicators for solids discharged in the effluent. Phenoland oil & grease are measurements of toxic substances. The choice of these indicators considersthe regulations made in MINAS (Minimal National Standards, CBWP 1985/07). Sulphides andsulphates effluents are not calculated because the available data was not adequate.

Air pollution mainly consists of flue gases emitted from combustion devices. Sulphur dioxide(SO2), Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and Carbon monoxide (CO) are hazardous substances for humanbeings, animals and plants. They are also destructive to buildings if they are dissolved in waterand become acid rain. Particulate matter (PM) describes the emissions of particles4 into the at-mosphere which contain toxic chemicals and thus they are also hazardous to living beings.

A group of gases contributing to the global warming is summarised under the category green-house gases. These are CO, CO2, NOX, methane, NMVOC (non-methane volatile organic com-pounds) and N2O. The CO2 equivalents (CO2 eq) are calculated with factors given by ÖKO(1993/12). Table 2.1 gives the used factors. The amount of emitted gases is multiplied by thesefactors. These factors aggregate the climatic impacts of different greenhouse gases for a periodof 100 years. The results are expressed in the mass of CO2 eq in grams.

Table 2.1: CO2 equivalent factors for a period of 100 years (ÖKO 1993/12)

CH4 CO NOX NMVOC N2O CO2

Equivalent factor 25 3 8 11 270 1

TEMIS requires the concentration of the pollutants in the flue gases of the combustion devicesto calculate the emissions. The indicators SO2 and CO2 are computed by TEMIS with informa-tion about the burnt fuel. Only the emissions of SO2 and particulate matter are regulated in In-

4 The emission of particles is described in Indian publications with different terms. The expressions particulatematter (PM) and particulates are used in the National standards. The expression suspended particulates is usedin the ambient air quality guidelines. Other authors use also suspended particulate matter (SPM) or total sus-pended particulates (TSP) for emissions and ambient air concentrations. TEMIS uses particulates for theemission values.

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dia. Other air pollutants are controlled by the ambient air concentration. The latter data cannotbe used for an LCA because it is not possible to link the information to a particular product.Information about other air pollutants as indicators was not available for India.

Wastes take different forms and require various forms of management. In this study two typesof wastes are classified. One type is cuttings. These are mainly geologically based materials fromdrilling activities with related impurities from the drilling chemicals. Normally they are notdumped on landfills. The rest of possible wastes are for example sludge from effluent treatmentplants, used drilling mud and oily sludge from storage facilities. These wastes are more hazard-ous.

The land use required for the production facilities is investigated as another qualitative indica-tor. Other investigated environmental impacts are the effects on flora and fauna, local influ-ences on temperature and emissions of noise. All these and the following indicators belong tothe category of qualitative impacts.

The following aspects of enquiry are investigated in the category society. The possibilities ofaccidents and health risks are described. Investigations about time budgets, gender specificshares, product use and cultural plurality are interesting mainly for the product use. The inves-tigation of these and other social indicators was proposed by the Öko-Institut for the instrumentof „Produktlinienanalyse“ (ÖKO 1987). Other authors often do not consider these factors. Theinvestigations in these areas should supplement the LCA.

Economic indicators are also not surveyed in all LCA’s. In this study economic variables on thesystem such as subsidies, market concentration, international co-operation and dependence aredescribed. The policy of subsidies to petroleum products made it (for example) impossible toallocate impacts by their product value. Another example is the market concentration in the pe-troleum sectors that limits a competition between the companies. Individual costs to the cus-tomer are calculated for the product variants. National costs are also outlined. Investigationsconcerning couple products are necessary to understand some processes and to allocate theirimpacts. Looking at the economic parameters is required to understand some restrictions to thesystem. They are less important for the comparison than the investigation on environmental in-dicators.

2.7 Matrix for the Life Cycle AssessmentNot all indicators stated in chapter 2.6 are investigated at every stage in the life cycle becausesometimes they do not have a significant impact. Stages in the product life and investigated indi-cators are mapped in a matrix that is shown in Table 2.2.

The different stages of the life-cycle are shown as explained in chapter 2.5. These stages arenumbered with I to X. Each indicator is also labelled with a specific expression. Thus every fieldof the shown matrix has a specific number. This number is quoted if the field is investigated inone of the following chapters. Field {III-B-1} stands for example for the water use in refineries.These labels make it possible to use the matrix in parallel with a reading of the following chap-ters. It enables one to ascertain the exact point of transformation at every stage in the investiga-tion.

The fields of energy use, materials, waste water, air pollution and wastes represent quantifiableimpacts. The LCI tries to find values that give the effect of each specific process step.

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2 Goal Definition for the Life Cycle Assessment

Table 2.2: Matrix of life stages and investigated indicators for the restricted LCA of commercial cooking fuels

AAAA

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

� � � - - - � � � � A-1 Liquid fuels Energy

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � � - - � - - - A-2 Gaseous fuels use

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

- - � - - - - - � - A-3 Solid fuels

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

- ? � - � - - - � - A-4 Electricity

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � � ? ? � ? ? � A-5 Human powerA A A A

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � ? � - ? - - - B-1 Water Materials

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

- � � � � � � � � � B-2 Steel

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� - � � � � - - ? ? B-3 Cement

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � ? - - - - - - - B-4 ChemicalsA A A A

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

� � � � � - ? ? - - C-1 Effluents Water

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � ? ? - ? ? ? ? C-2 BOD pollution

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � ? ? - ? ? ? ? C-3 COD

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

- - � ? ? - - ? - - C-4 Phenol

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � ? ? ? - - - - - C-5 TDS

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � ? ? - - - - - C-6 TSS

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

� � � ? - ? - � ? ? C-7 Oil & greaseA A A A

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � � - - � � � � D-1 SO2 AirAAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � � - - � � � � D-2 NOX pollution

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

� � � � - - � � � � D-3 CO

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � � - - � � � � D-4 PM

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � � � � � � � � D-5 Greenhouse gasesAA

AA

AA

AA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� - - - - - - - - - E-1 Cuttings Waste

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � ? - - - � - - E-2 Waste (others)A A A A

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

? � � � � � � � � � F-1 Land use Other

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

? � � ? - - - � ? ? F-2 Flora and fauna impacts

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � ? ? - - � - � � F-3 Noise

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � ? - - - - - - - F-4 TemperatureA A A A

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

� � ? ? ? � � ? ? � G-1 Health risks Society

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

- - - - - - � - - - G-2 Gender specific shares

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

- - - - - ? � - - - G-3 Time budget

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

- - - - - � � - - - G-4 Product use

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

- - - - - - � - - - G-5 Cultural plurality

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � ? ? ? - � � ? � G-6 AccidentsA A A A

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

? � � ? ? ? � ? ? ? H-1 Costs Economy

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

- - � � - � � ? ? ? H-2 Subsidies

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

� � � � � - - � - - H-3 International co-operation, dependence

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

� � � � � � � - - � H-4 Market concentration

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

- � � � - - - - - - H-5 Couple products

I Exploration Upstream (Resource Extraction)II ExploitationIII RefineryIV Gas processing plant Downstream (Production)V Bottling plantVI Wholesaler, Retailer DistributionVII Cooking ConsumptionVIII SeaIX Rail TransportX Road� This field is investigated in the LCI for the situation in India and/or for imports� Estimations are made for this field in the LCI? Effect might be possible but the indicator was not investigated in the LCI- No effect or negligible effect

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2 Goal Definition for the Life Cycle Assessment

The fields in the second half of the matrix (except the costs and subsidies), starting with field F-2 describe qualitative impacts. These effects are given in words. Naturally it is not possible toadd these qualitative effects or to calculate them over the whole life cycle. Note that noiseemissions also belong to this category, even if measurable, they can not be aggregated over thelife cycle.

Every field is marked with a sign that indicates the nature of the investigation in the LCI. Thisanticipates some of the results in following chapters. The fields of the matrix investigated forIndia are marked with a „�“. The fields that were estimated for the inventory are labelled with a„�“. Other fields that might be of interest but where no information was available are markedwith a „?“. Fields without any effect or with negligible effects are filled with a „-“.

2.8 Definition of the Balance RoomThe LCI and the calculations of the impacts are made for a cooking session in Dhanawas, asmall village in a rural region near New Delhi. This is necessary to compare the results with thestudy of LAUTERBACH (n.d.). Figure 2.2 shows the location of this village in India. Dhanawas isin the district of Gurgaon, 15 km from Gurgaon, in the state of Haryana. It is approximately 7km from the neighbouring Faroukhnagar and about 45 km from Delhi (TERI 1994).

Figure 2.2: The location of Dhanawas (TERI 1994)

The LCI investigates the environmental impacts of the production in India. This includes a sce-nario for the average production and transports in India. Environmental effects caused outsidethe country by imported products are considered in this scenario. Thus the set of investigationboundaries varies in each stages of the life cycle. The investigation boundaries for the effectsdepend also on the nature of the pollutants. Greenhouse gases have a global effect. Effects fromthe discharge of effluents are restricted to the rivers and oceans in India. The effects of the airpollutant emissions during the actual cooking are mainly of local concern inside the kitchen. InTEMIS the emissions of the cookstove are defined as local to distinguish these effects from the

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2 Goal Definition for the Life Cycle Assessment

average global emissions of foregoing processes. Further definitions of the boundaries are madein the inventory of each process.

2.9 Depth of the BalanceThe definition and description of the depth of the balance are necessary to have comparableresults within the study and against other studies. It is neither possible nor necessary to considerall impacts that are linked with the life cycle. At a certain point the investigation is cut-off be-cause the additional impacts are considered very small in comparison to the impacts investi-gated5.

For this study, only auxiliary materials (as described in chapter 2.6) are considered. Becauseof limited time it was not possible to estimate the energy use and environmental impact of theproduction of these materials in India. So only the amount of used materials is calculated. Theadditional environmental impacts are estimated using an assessment made for German materialprocessing facilities. Lubricants, additives for the fuels and their production were not investi-gated.

The amount of produced wastes is calculated. But the waste-management with its impacts andenergy requirement is not taken into account. For some data used in the inventory the demarca-tion line was not clear. Further information about the investigated depth of balance is given inthe inventory for the specific process.

For the computation in this study the following method is used: The energy flow is computediterative by TEMIS6. This is required because outputs of a process are also possible inputs forthe same process (e.g. refinery needs diesel oil as an energy carrier). This input causes an addi-tional impact on the specific process. This impacts must be considered for all processes usingthe specified product (the impact of diesel oil production must be considered for the refinery).The accuracy for the iterative (looped) computation was set to 0.001. This is a standard valueused in most of the cases. This value stops the iterative computation, if the variation betweentwo steps of computation (= maximum possible mistake due to the computation) is less than 1%(ÖKO 1993/12, 1994/12).

2.10 Balance Time for the InvestigationThe purpose of the investigation is to describe the situation in India in the year 1993/94. It wasnot possible to find the information required for this year. Thus sources from 1984 to April1995 were used to maintain sufficient data. In some areas possible changes in the future are out-lined. Some effects are not linked to one year, e.g. the efforts to explore new sources of crudeoil or raw materials used to construct a plant. These impacts are depreciated over the estimatedlife span of the process.

5For example: For cooking a stove is used. The steel for it has to be produced. For the construction of the steelplant again materials are necessary. It is not possible to find an end in this tree of impacts.

6This is described by ÖKO (1993/12, 1994/12).

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This chapter contains some information about the products used in the life cycle inventory. Thedefinition of products, these are resources, materials, fuels and residuals, is essential for theapplication of TEMIS. Residuals and materials are described as indicators in chapter 2.6. Mostof the product definitions use the generic data sets of GEMIS 2.0 and TEMIS 2.0. These datasets describe the situation in Germany. Data diverging from this data set is laid out for India inthis chapter. Some new products are also defined here (ÖKO 1993/12, 1994/12).

3.1 ResourcesResources describes primary forms of energy and raw materials. The definitions include quali-tative environmental aspects. They are considered with an assessment factor. Descriptions for allresources except water adopt the generic data set. The new resource water describes the use ofground, river, lake and sea water as a resource for processes. The extraction of ground watercan lead to groundwater depletion. Water extracted from surface sources is no longer availablefor other purposes such as biological demands or irrigation. The water extraction also causesdisadvantages to the micro-ecology. The influences to the indicators solid waste, accidents andland use are not significant (ÖKO 1993/12).

3.2 Investigation of Energy Carriers Used in IndiaDetailed information is given in this chapter for the two investigated fuels, LPG and keroseneand the resources natural gas and crude oil. For other fuels only brief information is given. Thefuels are described first in alphabetical order. The ultimate analysis for all solid and liquid fu-els is given in Table 3.3 (at the end of this chapter). The assessed analysis of gases is given inTable 3.4. The values given in these tables are used for all further calculations.

For every solid or liquid fuel TEMIS requires the contents of elements as weight percentage(wt%). For gaseous fuels a content analysis of the gases in volume percentage (vol%) is neces-sary. TEMIS uses the data for calculating the following (ÖKO 1993/12, 1994/12):

• Lower and higher heating value. The lower heating value (LHV) shows the useful en-ergy content of a fuel. The higher heating value (HHV) stands for the theoretical energycontent.

• Air demand and flue gas rate for combustion. These values are necessary to calculatethe total emissions of a pollutant if the concentration in the flue gases is known.

• Theoretical emissions of SO2, CO2, halogens and ashes. The results are used in the lifecycle inventory.

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3 Product Data for the Life Cycle Inventory

Coke

Coke is a by-product of some processes in the refinery. It is burned as a solid fuel for heatingpurposes in the refinery. Coke has a lower heating value of 39.8 MJ/kg (CFHT 1995).

Crude Oil (or Crude)

21 million tonnes of crude oil are imported from OPEC countries of the Gulf region: i.e. Iran,Saudi-Arabia, Dubai, Abu-Dhabi, and from Malaysia, Nigeria and in small amounts from Aus-tralia. In 1993/94, India produced 34 million tonnes domestically of the total crude oil proc-essed(IOC 1995; OOC 1995).

The crude oil extracted in India contains small amounts of sulphur in the range of 0.2 to 0.4wt%. The crude oil imported from the OPEC, except the 1 million tonnes low sulphur crudefrom Nigeria, contains between 2 and 2.5 wt% of sulphur. The sulphur content of the feed stockfor refineries on average lies between 1.2 to 1.5 wt% (IOC 1995; OCC 1995). The content ofwater in the crude oil for the processing in the refinery should not exceed 1 wt%(CBWP1985/12). In most cases, the content of nitrogen compounds does not exceed 0.3 wt%(SHARMA/AGNIHORTI 1992). Data for Indian, imported and processed crude oil are given inTable 3.3.

Diesel Oil (High Speed Diesel or Light Diesel Oil)

Motor vehicles require HSD (high speed diesel) as their source of fuel. LDO (light diesel oil) isused in small amounts for agriculture. Six times more diesel is used than gasoline in India. Theprice is set at 8 Rs per litre and it is subsidised. The product specification of Indian diesel isgiven in (ISI 1974a).

The content of sulphur in Indian diesel ranges between 0.3 and 0.7 wt% (in two refineries) withan average of 0.5 wt%. This is less than the legal specification of 1 wt%. For metropolitan citiesthis maximum will be reduced on April 1, 1996, to 0.5 wt%. The content of sulphur in dieselwill be reduced to 0.25 wt% by the year 2000 (IIP 1994/12; HINDUSTAN TIMES 1994; IOC1995). The carbon content of HSD and LDO is 86.1 wt% and 87.4 wt% respectively. Estimateddata for Indian diesel oil is given in Table 3.3 (SHARMA/SHARMA 1994/04).

Fuel gas

Fuel gas is a waste gas from the rectification unit. It basically contains methane and is a lowgrade fuel. It has a lower heating value of 46.9 MJ/m³ and is used in refineries (ALUER 1994;CFHT 1995).

Fuel Oil (also Furnace Oil or F.O.)

The sulphur content of fuel oil ranges between 0.5 wt% and the maximum of 4.5 wt% pre-scribed by the standard. Refineries normally use fuel oil with a sulphur content of 1 wt% to re-duce the emissions of sulphur dioxide. The specified ash content is less than 0.1 wt% and thewater content is less than 1 wt%. The carbon content of fuel oil is 88 wt%. It has a lower heat-ing value of 41.72 MJ/kg (CFHT 1995; ISI 1988; IOC 1995; OCC 1995; SHARMA/SHARMA

1994/04).

Hardcoal

Hardcoal extracted in India and used for steam trains has a lower heating value of 20.93 MJ/kg.The ash content of this coal is 23 wt% and the moisture content is estimated to be 10 wt%(IPNGS 1992; TEDDY 1994). Hardcoal is used for power plants and has a relatively high ashcontent of 40 wt% and a moisture content of 10 wt%. The LHV estimated at 11.8 MJ/kg(HARANT ET AL. 1993; TEDDY 1994). Table 3.3 shows the estimations for the ultimate analy-sis.

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3 Product Data for the Life Cycle Inventory

Kerosene (also SKO (Superior Kerosene Oil) or Kerosine)

Kerosene is a highly refined transparent fuel with a distinctive odour. It has clean and efficientburning qualities. Kerosene has many applications (BPCL 1994; BHANDARI/THUKRAL 1994):

• A fuel for wick fed lamps and pressure burner type lamps

• A fuel in cooking stoves, ranges, ovens, standby electricity generators and blow lamps

• Miscellaneous as a cleaning fluid, a solvent in paints or a raw material for the manufac-ture of printing inks

• Substitute to gasoline or diesel oil in the combustion motors of transport vehicles1

Kerosene mainly consists of saturated hydrocarbons with the molecule length of ten carbon at-oms (C10). Due to the flash point of 50°C, it is possible to handle it at room temperature withoutdanger. Its low viscosity makes it easily possible to pump or to transport it by the capillary ac-tion of a wick (LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER 1995).

The specifications for kerosene are given in the Indian standard 1459-1974. The fuel should befree of visible water, sediment and suspended matter. The char value shall not exceed 20 mg/kgof consumed oil. The minimum flash point (Abel) is 35°C. The total sulphur content shall notexceed 0.25 wt%. The lower heating value of kerosene is 40.8 to 43.5 MJ/kg (ISI 1974). Table3.1 records the composition of kerosene investigated by different authors.

Table 3.1: Analysis of elements in kerosene (wt%)

India India Germany Estimation forthe LCI

Carbon 86.15 85.7 84.36 85.9Hydrogen 14.0 15.09 13.8Oxygen - 0.45 0.05Nitrogen - 0.10 0.05Sulphur 0.5 (0.25) 0.2Source: SHARMA/

SHARMA 1994PCRA 1994/12 LAUTERBACH/

SCHNAITER 1995a

a This analysis was made for German kerosene. The sulphur content is additional to 100%. It was estimated byusing literature data.

LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)

The history of LPG is connected to the wider production history of the petroleum industry. Theproduction of gasoline was disturbed by the presence of unstable materials in the fuel. Thesesubstances at first could not be kept easily in a liquid state and they boiled away at atmosphericpressure. The result being it was not possible to use them practically, and they were releasedinto the atmosphere or burned as flares. In 1910 a process was developed to convert some ofthe gases into a liquid at a moderate pressure of 4,900 hPa. It was then possible to vaporisethem again by reducing the pressure. This new fuel had both the compactness and portability ofa liquid, yet it could be burned as a gas (MODAK 1995).

It is possible to convert 240 volumes of gas into one volume of liquid. The ability to compressLPG is a distinct advantage over natural gas where a relatively high pressure is required. This

1Some drivers and gasoline retailers profit illegally from the highly subsidised price. The price of gasoline is fivetimes higher than this of kerosene. It is estimated that about 15% of the total kerosene consumption in India isdiverted for use as transport fuel (BHANDARI/THUKRAL 1994).

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3 Product Data for the Life Cycle Inventory

property makes it easy to store large volumes in small containers. In India LPG is produced in12 refineries and 5 natural gas fractionating plants (MODAK 1995).

LPG is a basic mixture of propane (C3H8), n-butane, i-butane (C4H10) plus small parts of pro-pene (C3H6) and butene (C4H8). Requirements for LPG are prescribed in the Indian standard4576-1978. The contents of volatile sulphur should be below 0.02 wt%. Commercial butane-propane mixture should have a maximum vapour pressure of 16,500 hPa (ISI 1978).

LPG that is produced in Indian refineries is butane rich (ratio butane/propane = 65:35) in com-parison to other countries because of the lower demand for light distillates. Butane in othercountries is an important resource for the petrochemical industry. The LPG produced fromnatural gas in fractionating plants has a high content of propane (50:50) (IIP 1994/12; MODAK

1995; TERI 1989/03). Gaseous LPG is estimated as a mixture of 45 vol% propane and 55 vol%butane. For the calculations it is treated as a liquid fuel (LPG) with 0.01 wt% of sulphur, 17.7wt% of hydrogen and 82.29 wt% of carbon. Table 3.3 shows all data for the following calcula-tions.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon gases. It is found in the porousformations beneath the earth surface, either in association with crude oil or as free gas. Theheating values vary from 33 MJ/m³ to 45 MJ/m³ depending on the composition. It is used as aresource for fractionating plants and as a fuel in production (JAGGI 1994). Different analysis’s ofthe components in Indian natural gases are shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Composition of Natural Gas in India. The tables gives also minimum and maximum contents withdifferent analysis’s

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

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Vol% Mol% min - max. Mol% min - max.Estimation

Vol%AAAAAAAA

AAAA

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N2 0.1 0.01 n.a. 0.4 10.3 0.1

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

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H2S n.a. 0 0.0006 n.a. n.a. 0.0005

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAAAAAAA

CO2 0.9 4.76 5.12 0.03 0.25 1.0

AAAAAAAA

AAAA

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O2 n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.02 1.24 0.0

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

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CH4 85.8 79 92 76.1 83.5 86.8AAAAAAAA

AAAA

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C2H6 7.2 5.12 7.7 2.6 10.1 7.0

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

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C3H8 3.2 1.18 4.7 2.3 6.1 3.0AAAAAAAA

AAAA

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C4H10 1.8 0.1 2 1.4 2.4 1.8

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C4H8 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.3AAAAAAAA

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C5H12 0.7 0 0.5 0.1 1.6 -

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C6+ 0.3 0 0.03 0.1 1.3 -AA A AA

AAAAAAAA

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Sources: JAGGI 1994 PETROTECH 1995 SHARMA/CHAUDHARY 1992

n.a. - data not available

Data for Products in TEMIS

Products that are marked with (GEMIS) were used without modifications from the data ofGEMIS 2.0 or TEMIS 2.0. Other products are estimated with the previously presented infor-mation. Table 3.3 and Table 3.4 show the data for the calculation with TEMIS. The followingabbreviations are used for the comments:

CIS Commonwealth of independent statesIn Indiaint internationalOPEC Organisation of Oil Exporting CountriesPP Power plant

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3 Product Data for the Life Cycle Inventory

Table 3.3: Ultimate analysis of solid and liquid fuels

Fuel and comment LHV(MJ/kg)

HHV(MJ/kg)

Spec. weight(kg/MJ)

C(wt%)

H(wt%)

N(wt%)

O(wt%)

S(wt%)

Cl(wt%)

F(wt%)

H2O(wt%)

Ash(wt%)

C2-C3-In 44.80 48.61 0.02232 83.05 16.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Liquefied ethane-propane mixture, raw material produced in fractionating plants for petrochemical products

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Coke-In 39.75 41.93 0.02515 88.00 9.65 0.50 0.10 0.60 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.95Coke produced in the FCC of the refinery and burnt in furnaces

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Crude-CIS 40.00 40.86 0.025 85.00 10.10 1.00 1.00 1.90 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00Crude oil from Commonwealth of Independent States (GEMIS)

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Crude-In 39.69 42.09 0.0252 85.70 10.60 0.30 1.00 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.80 1.30Crude oil extracted in India

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Crude-OPEC 38.78 41.05 0.02579 84.00 10.00 1.00 1.00 2.25 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.75Average crude oil imported to India mainly from OPEC countries (GEMIS)

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Crude-proc-In 39.26 41.58 0.02547 85.20 10.20 0.50 1.00 1.35 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.95Average crude oil processed in Indian refineries

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

HSD-In 42.46 45.45 0.02355 86.10 13.27 0.02 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.01High speed diesel oil used for vehicles, trains and technical equipment (generators) in India

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

LDO-In 41.78 44.49 0.02393 87.40 12.06 0.02 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02Light diesel oil used in small amounts for agriculture in India

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Fuel-oil-(HPS)-In 39.74 42.17 0.02517 84.00 10.80 0.30 0.50 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.10Fuel oil or heavy petroleum stock (HPS) in India

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Fuel-oil-low-S-In 41.69 44.57 0.02398 85.25 12.75 0.20 0.40 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.10Low sulphur fuel oil or (HPS) used in refineries

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Hardcoal-CIS 25.60 26.25 0.03906 70.43 2.00 1.30 7.00 1.00 0.25 0.02 8.00 10.00Imported hardcoal from CIS (GEMIS)

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Hardcoal/PP-In 11.76 13.64 0.08503 29 4.00 1.50 15.00 0.50 0.004 0.001 10.00 40.00Estimation for hardcoal as a fuel for power-plants

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3 Product Data for the Life Cycle Inventory

Table 3.3: Ultimate analysis of solid and liquid fuels (continuation)

Fuel and comment LHV(MJ/kg)

HHV(MJ/kg)

Spec. weight(kg/MJ)

C(wt%)

H(wt%)

N(wt%)

O(wt%)

S(wt%)

Cl(wt%)

F(wt%)

H2O(wt%)

Ash(wt%)

Hardcoal/train-In 20.93 23.40 0.04778 51.00 5.00 1.30 9.00 0.50 0.20 0.01 10.00 23.00Estimation for hardcoal as a fuel for steam trains in India

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Kerosene 42.86 45.96 0.02333 85.90 13.80 0.05 0.05 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Superior kerosene oil for cooking and lightning in India

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

LPG 45.24 49.22 0.0221 82.29 17.70 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Liquefied petroleum gas for residential use in India 45% propane and 55% butane

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NGL-In 48.96 54.36 0.02042 76.00 24.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Natural gas liquefied

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Oil-H-CIS 40.70 42.99 0.02457 87.00 10.75 0.45 0.00 1.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Heavy-fuel oil, data based on German HFO (GEMIS)

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Oil-H-OPEC 40.70 42.99 0.02457 87.00 10.75 0.45 0.00 1.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Heavy-fuel oil, data based on German HFO (GEMIS)

Table 3.4: Analysis of gases

Gas spec. weight(kg/MJ)

LHV HHV(MJ/m³)

CH4 C2H6 C2H4 C3H8 C3H6 n-C4H10

(vol%)i-C4H10 C4H8 CO2 N2 H2S

Fuel-gas-ref-In 0.02084 46.85 51.52 59.80 37.59 1.76 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.20 0.01Fuel-gas used for internal energy demand in refineries

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LNG-fra-In 0.02015 36.40 40.37 97.85 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00Lean natural gas, used as a fuel in gas fractionating plants

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LPG-g 0.02176 110.06 119.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 45.00 0.00 54.98 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02„gaseous“ LPG

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Natural-gas-CIS 0.02050 36.00 39.93 97.71 0.80 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.15 0.93 0.00Natural gas from CIS (Siberia) (GEMIS)

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Natural-gas-In 0.02090 41.03 45.31 86.80 7.00 0.00 3.00 0.00 1.00 0.80 0.30 1.00 0.10 0.00Estimation for typical natural gas in India, used as fuel for extraction, flaring and as a resource

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This chapter contains the life cycle inventory for the production of natural gas and crude oil inIndia.

4.1 Economical Background and Statistics for the Supply of Natural Gas and Crude Oilin India

The first production of oil in commercial quantities began in India over a hundred years agowith the discovery and subsequent development of the Digboi field. Gas and oil production inthe western offshore area began in 1976 in the Bombay High field with the installation of the„NA“ platform(BATRA 1995).

In India there are two state controlled enterprises, the Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.(ONGC) and Oil India Ltd. (OIL) that undertake exploration, drilling and exploitation activi-ties of crude oil and natural gas in the country in these days {I-H-4,II-H-4}1. A major initiative hasbeen recently undertaken to form a new company through a consortium of three major down-stream enterprises. The plan for the future is to open this field up to foreign companies {II-H-3}.They will be invited to work in joint ventures with the Indian companies (SHARMA 1995).

The ONGC is the major company in India and among the world’s top 15 profit-making compa-nies. The erstwhile Oil & Natural Gas Commission was established in August 1956 and re-named at 1 February 1994. The ONGC was incorporated in June 1993 as a public limited com-pany. Today it has a working staff of 48,000 people {I,II-A-5}. Its activities are spread over 20sedimentary basins, accounting for over 100 oil and gas fields. In 1988 it did 92.4% of drilling,and in 1991/92 the ONGC produced 92% of the total crude oil and natural gas produced in thecountry (ONGC 1994; PETROTECH 1995).

The formation of OIL dates back to 1959. On 14 October 1981 OIL was fully nationalised. OILhas its headquarters in Assam and is engaged in exploration, drilling and production from on-shore areas in Assam, Rajasthan and Arunchal Pradesh. Nowadays OIL explores offshore basinsin the Bay of Bengal and near the Andamans. It also runs a fractionating plant in Duljan. Today9,000 persons are working for the company {I,II-A-5}. OIL has a preferential recruitment policyfavouring unskilled labour that ensures a high proportion of employees are local people (JAGGI

1995; OIL 1989, 1995).

The Indian policy in the early years followed the motif of self-reliance as the foundation stone ofeconomic activity. Core activities, like oil production, were turned into the exclusive respon-sibility of the India State. Since 1991 reforms have taken place and many sectors have beenopened up to private enterprises. The oil price shock and the high bill for imports led the gov-ernment to retract from its prior policy and to invite private enterprises (RAMAN/UPADHYAY

1995).

India is a net oil importing country and the annual bill for oil imports is increasing every year {II-H-1}. The oil sector assumes a particular importance in the economy, as it accounts for morethan 40% of the commercial energy consumed. It is primarily responsible for the capital ex-change outflow which constitutes one half of the entire foreign trades bill over a year(RAMAN/UPADHYAY 1995; TEDDY 1994).

1 The expression in brackets is reference to the investigated indicator and the stage of the life cycle as shown intable 2.2. This advance is explained in chapter 2.7.

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All the statistical data given in the next section for 1992/93 is provisional. The calculations forthe LCA are based on this data. The structure for crude oil and natural gas is shown in Table4.1. For the following calculations the products are converted into MJ because the calculationsare based on their specific energy content. During the year 29 million tonnes (MT) of crude oilwas imported2, 16 MT was produced at the offshore basin Bombay High and 11 MT was pro-duced at onshore fields. Natural gas extraction accompanies the oil exploitation. The large shareof the total 18 billion cubic metres (Bm³) is produced at the offshore fields (13 Bm³). Todaynearly 2 billion cubic metres of the natural gas is flared3 without any usage. A small part of thegas is re-injected for storage and pressure maintenance. Accordingly the net production is 16billion cubic metres (TEDDY 1994).

Table 4.1: Structure and total supply of natural gas and crude oil in 1992/93 (TEDDY 1994)

Crude oil Crude oil(109 MJ)

Natural gas Natural gas(109 MJ)

Supply(109 MJ)

Import 53% 1,160 - - 1,160Production onshore net 20% 445 23% 189 637Production offshore net 27% 625 77% 548 1,170Flaring - - 1.85 Bm³ 76 -Available amount 57.8 MT 2,230 16.10 Bm³ 737 2,970

The data for the year 1993/94 was not yet fully available4, but it is possible to give a few generaltrends. In this year 30.8 million tonnes of crude, with a value of 101 billion Rs, was imported.OIL produced 2.8 MT of crude out of the total production of 27 MT. The over all productionof natural gas during 1993/94 was 18.3 billion m³. The western offshore fields share of total gasproduction was 73%. The production for the next year is projected to be 20.1 billion m³. Of this78% is net production after flaring, internal use and shrinkage. Several projects are going on toincrease the proportion gas used (ONGC 1994; JAGGI 1995; WSN 1994).

The production of crude oil in the country shows a declining trend from 1990/91 to 1992/93.The main reasons for a significant shortfall in production vis-à-vis targets was frequent powershutdowns and environmental constraints in the eastern region. The government has initiated anumber of measures that should lead to an increase in production for the following years (WSN1994).

To meet the demand in India, steps are being taken to import natural gas. A pre-feasibility studyfor transporting 56 MMSCMD (million metric square cubic metres per day) gas through a sub-marine pipeline from the Middle-East has been completed. A planned pipeline from Iran to Indiawith a capacity of 50 to 70 MMSCMD is also proposed (WSN 1994).

2In recent years there were also exports, beside the imports. The reason is that the Indian crude oil has a lowsulphur content. The net profit for this sweet crude is higher than the price paid for imported sour crude thatcontains hydrogen sulphide or sulphur hydrocarbons. In refineries the two types are sometimes mixed (ONGC1994/12).

3Since several years one aim of the oil exploiting companies is to increase the ratio between net and gross naturalgas production. The main reasons that flaring could not be eliminated until now, are delays in commissioningdownstream gas utilisation facilities and the little flexibility in reducing the production of associated gases(TEDDY 1994).

4Data for the offshore crude production, but also other necessary statistical data e.g. about drilling activities werenot available.

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4.2 Exploration and Exploitation of Crude Oil and Natural Gas in IndiaThe impact of the resource extraction in India is investigated in this chapter. Petroleum wasformed from dead plant and animal life in the seas. The material rots away in the sea-bed untilfinally only fatty and oily substances were left. The substances become buried under a compactlayer of mud. Through the activities of oxygen-removing bacteria the substances are transferredinto crude oil and gas. The oil seldom remains in the rock where it was formed. Sometimes ittravels through pores until it reaches the surface. The reason for the migration is the compactingor squeezing of the source rock. Usually above the oil there is a layer of natural gas and beneathit there is salt water from the ancient sea (OIL 1989).

In India there are 26 large sedimentary territories that cover a total area of about 1.7 millionkm2, including 700,000 km2 in offshore area. Figure 4.1 shows the sedimentary basins in India.To date in one quarter of this area reserves of hydrocarbons have been discovered but half ofthe basins are virtually unexplored. There is certainly a good possibility of discovering muchmore commercial oil and gas in the remaining sedimentary basins. Much effort is being madetowards this end (PETROTECH 1995).

Figure 4.1: Map of India’s potential sedimentary oil basins (OIL 1989)

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The extraction and production of natural gas and crude oil can be divided into the followingphases:

• Geographical and geophysical survey, seismic field studies

• Exploratory drilling with discovery wells

• Development drilling

• Well testing

• Construction of the processing facilities

• Production of natural gas and crude oil

• Dismantling and reclaiming of the production site

The production of crude oil and natural gas is investigated together in the following sections {II-H-5}. The allocation of the impacts is described in chapter 4.2.3.1. Most of the natural gas isproduced in association with the crude oil. This makes it impossible to treat the two resourcesseparated. Offshore and onshore productions are described together. Differences in the activitiesare stated and the environmental calculations are made separately.

4.2.1 Exploration of Petroleum Resources

4.2.1.1 Pre-surveys for the ExplorationThe environmental impacts of the pre-surveys are relatively negligible. Main aspects are landuse, energy use for the activities and artificial explosions for the seismic field parties. Steps forthe discovery of oil fields are the following ones (OIL 1989; ONGC 1994/12):

• Geological survey: Source rock, a reservoir rock and a seal rock are necessary for thedevelopment of petroleum resources

• Geophysical survey: Energy waves from dynamite blast are reflected by rock formationsto sensitive detectors. The sound reflection, sonar and seismic methods are used since1930

• Geochemical survey: In use since 1950

• Remote sensing

• Microbiology survey of the fauna one metre below the earth surface. It is surveyedwhether there are micro-organisms that are adapted to higher hydrocarbon concentra-tions. This could be a hint on petroleum resources

It was not possible to investigate the impacts of the pre-surveys separately for India. In ÖKO(1994/12) the amount of energy used for pre-surveys including the exploratory drilling is esti-mated to be less than 0.05% of the finally exploited energy resources. A few impacts of the pre-surveys are considered in the calculations of the next chapter.

4.2.1.2 Exploratory and Developmental Drilling and Well TestingThe drilling done in India during the last three years is shown Table 4.2. The average activity ofthese years is used for the following calculations. The specific drilling activity is 41 mm pertonne of exploited crude oil. This is considerably more than the average value of 13 mm/t foundby FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) for average crude oil imported to Europe.

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Table 4.2: Number of exploratory and development wells and the drilled metreage in India during the years1990/91 to 1992/93(TEDDY 1994)

ExploratoryOnshore

DevelopmentOnshore

ExploratoryOffshore

DevelopmentOffshore

Total

(km) (No.) (km) (No.) (km) (No.) (km) (No.) (km) (No.)1990/91 434 176 455 220 184 73 92 66 1,165 5351991/92 454 176 401 193 167 61 41 22 1,063 4521992/93 413 172 441 196 176 69 75 31 1,105 468Average 434 175 432 203 176 68 69 40 1,111 485

Discovery (or exploratory) wells are drilled to estimate the size of a reservoir. If the reservoir isfound to be of value, the next step is the developmental drilling. Onshore discovery wells areused for the construction of development wells. For a long time this was a problem for offshorewells, but today they are sometimes used too. Over 130 onshore and offshore drilling rigs forexploration and development drilling are in ONGC operation(GOEL 1995; ONGC 1994/12;TEDDY 1994).

Figure 4.2 shows the plan of a drilling site. Today oil wells are bored with a revolving bit that isfixed to lengths of drill-pipe slung by wire-cables from a tall tower called a derrick. This pipe isrotated by machinery driven either by a diesel engine or electricity.

Artificial drilling mud is pumped down the drill-pipe and circulated continuously through holesin the bit and then back up at the sides of the hole. With the upcoming mud, rocky materials arebrought to the surface. These cuttings are washed and separated from the drilling mud on thevibrating screens of the shale shaker. The mud is reused for drilling. Near the drilling site thereare waste pits located to store the produced effluents and the cuttings (OIL 1989).

Today most of the activities in Indian offshore areas are run by the ONGC {I-H-4}. The westernoffshore area is situated about 160 km from Bombay and includes the fields Bombay High,Heera, Basin, Neelam, Panna, Ratna and Mukta. The first platforms for oil exploitation in thewestern offshore area were established by ONGC in 1976. OIL explores gas and oil offshore inthe Bay of Bengal and the Andamans. The offshore drilling is done from ships or drilling plat-forms. Normally six to nine wells are drilled for one production platform. If the effluents andwastes are not brought on land they are discarded into the sea (PETROTECH 1995; OIL 1989;ONGC 1995/01).

Environmental impacts on land, water and air are linked from the beginning of drilling activities.These impacts are not directly related to the amount of products. They occur only at the begin-ning of a new production. To consider them correctly, they should be spread over the life timeof the production facility. It seems to be reliable to assume, for the calculations, the mean forthe last 3 years (as shown in Table 4.2) because the activities of drilling and the production ofcrude oil and gas have not changed markedly over this time. To simplify the inventory these av-erage drilling impacts are related to the amount of natural gas and crude oil produced in the year1992/93.

4.2.1.3 Use of Materials and ChemicalsDuring drilling the upcoming sub-surface bottom pressure is counteracted by a column of fluid.This is known as drilling mud. It contains various chemicals and has a high specific gravity. Itis pumped into the well and then the cuttings (rock pieces) are brought up to the surface to-gether with the mud. This mud also cools and lubricates the bit, builds up a „cake“ on the walland prevents the hole from caving in (OIL 1989).

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Figure 4.2: Drilling fluid circulation system and solid holding mechanism at an onshore drilling site(VELCHAMY/SINGH/NEGI 1992)

Water based mud contains 2 to 3% diesel oil. It can be used down to a depth of 1.5 km. Insidethe reservoir the more expensive oil based mud is used. Diesel oil is a major constituent of thisfluid. Drilling mud is adapted to the special needs of each drilling site. To gather the desiredproperties, various chemicals are steadily added (ASTHA 1995; OIL 1995; SHARMA/SHARMA

1994/04; PETROTECH 1995).

The chemicals used to prepare the mud vary considerably according to the different fluid sys-tems. Figure 4.3 shows the composition of drilling fluid additives used in the western region ofONGC. The main ingredients of the fluids are fine solids like barite, bentonite clays, lignite ormica. They serve as lubricating, sealing and weighting materials. Other chemical additives likeferrochrome-lignosulfonate, polymers or thinners are used to give other properties. Some of the

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chemicals contain heavy metals. OIL uses low wax crude oil from the own oil production as amud additive (ASTHA 1995; OIL 1995; SHARMA/SHARMA 1994/04; PETROTECH 1995).

About 250 to 350 tonnes of chemicals are used for one well {I-B-4}. An average of five partswater is mixed with the chemicals to prepare the drilling mud. Drilling fluids are sometimes lostinto the formation (GOEL 1995; SHARMA/SHARMA 1994/04; PETROTECH 1995).

The amount of drilling mud used depends on the particular circumstances of the drilling and thedepth of the well. Between 250 and 2,218 tonnes of drilling mud is used for one well. A volumeof 100 to 4,800 cubic metres of liquid mud is discharged. The total amount of chemicals used byONGC in 1993/94 was about 20,000 tonnes. The total HSD consumption in ONGC’s drillingoperations has been reduced from a level of 8 million litres to 2.2 million litres per year by usingalternative lubricating chemicals (ONGC 1994/04, 1995/01; PETROTECH 1995; SINGH 1992).

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Barite62,0%

Clays24,0%

Lignosulfonate2,0%

Caustic Soda1,5%Lignite

1,5%All Others

8,0%

Figure 4.3: Share of the consumption rate for drilling fluid additives in the western region of ONGC(VELCHAMY/SINGH/NEGI 1992)

After the completion of the drilling, samples of each oil well are taken for various productionand reservoir studies. To extract oil from the bottom of the well, the heavy mud is displaced bylight weight diesel oil. The resulting flow of diesel oil reveals various required parameters andinformation about the well (ASTHA 1995; ONGC 1994/12).

To stabilise the well, its inner wall is cemented. One well is cemented with 100 to 120 tonnes ofspecial cement {I-B-3}. For the activities of ONGC, this aggregates to a total of about 100thousand tonnes of cement used every year. This cement needs a number of chemical additivesto ensure certain properties. The cement should maintain for example a constant consistencybefore it hardens (ONGC 1994/12; PETROTECH 1995).

The amount of chemicals and cement used in India is estimated in Table 4.3 {I-B-3, 4}. Thesevalues are a calculation based on an average of different sources (ONGC 1995/01; TERI1992/07; PETROTECH 1995).

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Table 4.3: Materials used for the exploration activities in India (1,000 t/a)

Offshore OnshoreChemicals 20.3 72.6Cement 16.5 99.2

4.2.1.4 Energy Use and Emissions of Air PollutantsDuring drilling, the following gaseous emissions are encountered (DINESH 1994/04; ONGC1994/12):

• Mainly exhaust gases from burners, engines and power generation sets powered by die-sel oil

• Products of combustion due to burning of natural gas and diesel oil at the time of welltesting

• Emissions of hydrocarbons from cold flaring (release into the atmosphere withoutburning) during the testing period

• Smoke from the derrick (the framework over the oil well)

• Fumes, odours and cement dust from cementing and mud preparation operations

Due to the energy use emissions of air pollutants are encountered. For the drilling activities die-sel oil is used. A share of about 58% of ONGC’s total consumption of liquid petroleum prod-ucts is used for drilling. The ONGC consumes 128 million litres of HSD and 24 million litres oflubricating oils5 in its drilling operations. 6.5% share of the drilling costs is spent on petroleumproducts used as fuel. For one meter of drilling, among 102 (onshore) and 166 (offshore) litresof diesel oil and 1.8 to 3.1 litres of lubricating oils are used. After the various measurements forwell testing, an amount of 50,000 litres per well is burnt off6. After calculations using these dif-ferent sources for the HSD use, the average is 20.3 thousand tonnes for offshore and 56.4 thou-sand tonnes for onshore drilling {I-A-1}. The emission of air pollutants due to the burning of theHSD is calculated in chapter 4.2.2.7 (ASTHA 1995; GOEL 1995; ONGC 1994/12).

4.2.1.5 Use of Water and Discharge of EffluentsDuring drilling operations, an enormous quantity of water is handled for operational purposes.The water is used in the preparation of drilling mud, cooling and the cleaning of equipment.

The drilling mud can be reused in another well if transportation costs are not too expensive,otherwise it is treated with the other effluents of the drilling site. A widely used and simplemethod to get rid of water based drilling fluids from onshore sites, is to spread them thinly overthe surrounding agricultural fields. BHARDWAJ (1994/04) claims that the material is a good fer-tiliser providing as organic chemicals such as diesel oil, corrosion inhibitors and biocides arekept to a minimum. The origin of different effluents at a drilling site is given in Table 4.4. Nor-mally they are stored for some time in pits at the drilling site. If these pits are unlined, the prob-ability of contamination of ground water increases with the higher permeability of the surfacesoil and a high ground-water table (AGNIHORTI ET AL. 1992).

5The potential for reduction in the energy consumption in this area could be up to 10%. The savings possibilitiesare described by GOEL (1995).

6Approaches on how to reduce this type of consumption and how to reuse the diesel, were given by ASTHA

(1995).

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Table 4.4: Discharge of fluids during drilling (NEERI 1991/04)

AAAAA

Source of effluents Amount (l/h) FrequencyA

AAAA

Shale shaker 160 - 320 continuous

AAAAA

Desander 480 2 - 3 h/dAAAA

Desilter 2,445 - 2,700 2 - 3 h/d

AAAAA

Centrifuge 4,720 1 - 3 h every 2 - 3 d

AAAAA

Sand trap 87,500 - 420,000 2 - 10 min every 2 - 3 d

AAAA

Sample trap 240 - 480 5 - 10 min every 2 - 3 dTotal discharge of fluids for one well: 420 - 4,800 m³

The major pollutants in the effluents are soluble chemicals used with the drilling mud. Salt, hy-drocarbons and heavy metals, found in the additives, accumulate in the waste pit (SINGH 1992).For the treatment of these effluents, mobile effluent treatment plants are used7. If the water istreated properly, it is possible to reuse it for the drilling operations, and thus save fresh water. Ifthe water is not reused, the effluents are discharged into the environment whether they havebeen treated or not. A lack of proper wastewater management is likely to result in water pollu-tion (PAUL ET AL. 1995; PETROTECH 1995; DINESH 1994/04).

At offshore drilling rigs, fluids that do not contain oil are discharged into the sea through pipe-lines that descend 50 m below the sea level. Otherwise the pot and drill water, in an amount of23 to 45 tonnes, are transported to shore for treatment and disposal. The use of water recyclingplants would potentially provide a large saving potential (GOEL 1995; NEERI 1990/03).

The onshore effluents are collected in pits with a capacity of 5,000 to 6,500 m³. On an averagedrilling site, 30 to 40 m³ of water is discharged daily. During the monsoon season these effluentsare mixed with huge amounts of rain (PAUL ET AL. 1995; PETROTECH 1995; ONGC 1994/04).

The amount of total effluent is estimated as an average calculation based on three sources asshown in Table 4.5 {I-B-1, I-C-1}. The water in mud row gives the theoretical amount of waterused to prepare the mud. Data about the water use was not available. The water use is esti-mated as the average of the water in mud value and the discharged effluent.

Table 4.5: Water balance for drilling (1,000 t/a)

Offshore OnshoreWater in mud 55 138Total effluent 103 1,050

Water use 79 594

Sources: Calculation based on information given by SUYAN 1994/04; SHARMA/SHARMA 1994/04 and ONGC 1995

Values for water pollutants in the treated effluents of drilling sites were available only for singlewells. Thus these water pollutants are estimated together with the production effluents in chap-ter 4.2.2.8 {I-C-2..C-7}.

4.2.1.6 Cuttings and WasteDuring drilling, different types of wastes are generated. The ratios as calculated by VEL-

CHAMY/SINGH/NEGI (1992) are shown in Figure 4.4. Settlelates are residues of the settlingtanks. The waste produce accompanying the treatment of effluents in ETP (Effluent treatmentplants) is considered in chapter 4.2.2.8. Other types of waste arising from drilling are the left

7 OIL uses movable effluent treatment plants for all drilling sides. It is not clear if the ONGC has the same pos-sibilities (JAGGI 1995).

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additives in the cement, well treatment fluids and flow enhancers for stimulating production(TERI 1993/01).

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65%

12%10%8%

5%

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Other Sources

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Sludge from ETP

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Solid Waste from Store

Figure 4.4: Solids generated and their distribution ratio (VELCHAMY/SINGH/NEGI 1992)

One of the environmental aspects of the drilling is the quantity and the characteristics of theproduced drilling cuttings. This depends upon the nature of the formation, as well as upon thediameter and depth of the well. Cuttings generated average 10 tonnes per day at a drill site. Thecuttings are inert rock materials with no toxicity. Problems are only assumed if heavy metals arewashed out of the material. Similarly if remains of the drilling mud or traces of oil are dis-charged together with the cuttings. Onshore, the cuttings are used in agriculture, road construc-tion or they are discarded in landfills. The cuttings from offshore platforms are discharged intothe sea (BHARDWAJ 1994/04; CHAND 1992; TERI 1992/07).

It is difficult to quantify the magnitude of the impact from such discharges into the sea becausethe dispersion and dilution of such discharges will vary according to the ambient water condi-tion, composition of drilling fluid and cutting discharges. The impact of the discharges into thesea also depends on the distance from the coast. At Bombay High, most of the activities are at adistance of 66 km from the coast and hence little impact would be expected at the coast. Ad-verse impacts on free water organisms are expected to be minor and of short duration. Effectson sessile organisms are limited to a short distance around the discharge point. If drilling activityis closer to the coast as for example in Palk Bay, or is close to major estuaries and deltas thenthe impacts will tend to be more significant as the possibility of dispersion and dilution of thedischarges will be limited (TERI 1992/07; ONGC 1994/04). A governmental guideline will soonbe in place for these wastes which will prescribe a secure storage in landfills (HAWK 1995).

Water pollutants are emitted due to the discharge of cuttings into the sea. FRISCHKNECHT ET AL.(1995) estimated an average of 100 g oil & grease per kg of cuttings from drilling with oil basedmud. This type of mud is used for 20% of the drilling activities. The additional emission of oil &grease due to the discharge of cuttings from Indian offshore platforms is estimated to be 2kg/TJ.

Table 4.6 shows categories of major waste discharges from offshore and onshore drilling. Underaccount of the typical quantities of cuttings, the total amount of waste due to the drilling activi-ties can be estimated for one year. The amount of cuttings produced in one year is assessed with171 thousand tonnes from offshore and 405 thousand tonnes from onshore drilling sites with theshown values {I-E-1}. TERI (1992/07) estimated the total amount of cuttings in 1990/91 to beabout 38 - 60 thousand tonnes. Other wastes are estimated at an additional 100 tonnes per well

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(VELCHAMY/SINGH/NEGI 1992). This adds up to 11 thousand tonnes of waste from offshore and38 thousand tonnes of waste from onshore drilling activities {I-E-2}.

Table 4.6: Amounts of cuttings discharge from offshore and onshore drilling sites (tonnes)

Exploration DevelopmentTotal discharge of cuttings 836 - 1,305 per well 9,150 - 27,400 per platform a

Estimation for offshore wells 1,000 per well 2,570 per well Estimation for onshore wells 1,070 per well 1,070 per well

a one platform = 6 to 9 wellsSources: Own calculation with SHARMA/SHARMA 1994/04; VELCHAMY/SINGH/NEGI 1992

4.2.1.7 Other Environmental ImpactsSources of noise at the drilling site are equipment like generators, pumps, etc., and transportvehicles {I-F-3}. Thermal pollution at drilling sites is caused by heat and light emitted from en-gines or due to the flaring of gas during well testing. This might have an impact on nearbystanding plants {I-F-2, 4} (DINESH 1994/04).

4.2.2 Exploitation of Petroleum Resources in India

4.2.2.1 Exploitation from Onshore AreasAt the zone of interest, i.e. where petroleum is expected, the new drilled wells are perforated.The production of oil and gas from the well is initiated through newly created holes. The naturalpressure forces the resources out of the well. A system of safety valves called a Christmas Treeensures an even and controllable flow (OIL 1989).

Natural gas is found in the porous formations beneath the earth surface either in association withcrude oil or as free gas. Depending on the reservoir-pressure and temperature, certain quantitiesof gas are either in a dissolved state or in free state above the oil column. The production of theso-called associated gas is dependent on the extraction of crude oil. This leads to gas flaring incase of low market demand for the gas. Most of the explored gas is associated (WSN 1994).

Natural gas can also be produced from gas reservoirs. The gas in the reservoir is under pressure.To avoid the formation of ice due to the expansion at the surface, the gas is preheated prior toexpansion. The production of free natural gas is not related to a crude oil exploitation and thuscontrollable (WSN 1994).

Onshore 30 to 40% of the crude oil can be recovered by means of natural pressure. Most of thecrude oil in India is produced by means of this primary recovery. After 2 to 3 years the secon-dary recovery starts. To get up to 50 to 60% of the crude oil, pressure water or gas is pumpedinto the reservoir to support the natural pressure. If the crude oil is liquefied under help of heat,chemicals or biological additives the exploitation is termed as tertiary recovery. This has ad-vantages for the recovery of very viscous oils and is called Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). Thesecondary and tertiary recovery methods are more energy intensive and they will be extended inIndia in the next years. To reduce the possibility of subsidence, the optimum oil recovery shouldnormally not exceed 50% of the total stored amount (AGNIHORTI ET AL. 1992; ONGC 1994/12;WSN 1994).

Gas lifting is universally used for the production of crude oil from depleted reservoirs. In thissystem high pressure gas is injected into the production string to assist lifting of well fluids tothe surface. Presently about 60% of OIL’s crude production is achieved through this technique.Instead of pumping gas into the reservoir, it is also possible to achieve a high pressure by

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pumping water through injection wells into the earth. In both cases extra power is needed: torun gas compressing units or to run pumps on water wells and in the re-injection wells. Thetechnique of water injection is used frequently in the offshore areas (WSN 1994).

The gas balance for the production of OIL is shown in Table 4.7. About 23% of the producedgas is re-injected into the reservoir. The re-injected gas is not considered as a product. The cal-culation if the final raw was used as the basis for the further investigation.

Table 4.7: Gas balance for the production of OIL in 1993/94 (million m³) (OIL 1995)

Total production of natural gas 1,520 100.00%Internal consumption for gas injection 255 16.74%Returned to reservoir 97 6.40%Total re-injection 352 23.15%Flaring 459 30.19%Internal consumption as fuel 67 4.42%Supplied to consumers 642 42.24%Net production including flaring 1,170 76.85%

The thermal method includes the injection of hot steam, water or air. The following facilitiesare necessary for the EOR with a continuous steam injection process (AGNIHORTI ET AL. 1992):

• Surface facilities: Steam generators, fuel oil tanks, gas-fired heaters to reduce the vis-cosity of fuel oil in tanks

• Pipelines: To bring water to the generators after softening, to carry steam from genera-tors to wells and to take oil from the production wells

• Off-site facilities: Pumps for water supply, ion exchange water softeners

• Transitory facilities for delivery of fuel oil

Over time the productivity of a well falls. The water cut tents to increasing and this can be areason to cease exploitation of the well. The time of productivity can be lengthened with work-over activities. This process is similar to the activity of drilling. A new cementing is followed bya selective perforation (PETROTECH 1995).

The oil wells are connected by pipelines to a Group Gathering Station8 (GGS) which is lo-cated centrally in respect to a cluster of wells. These GGS facilities are set up for the processingthe incoming well fluid that is usually a mixture of crude oil, associated natural gas and some-times formation water. For the treatment in the GGS, additives are necessary. Crude oil contain-ing water is called wet crude, otherwise it is termed dry crude. These types are processed indi-vidually in the GGS (ONGC 1994/12; WSN 1994).

In the GGS the gas, oil and water are separated. The crude oil is collected in a storage tank andthen dispatched to the central tank farm for onward delivery to refineries. The separated gas isfed directly into the gas distribution network: For extraction of LPG, for generation of power,internal consumption and to supply the market demand. Free natural gas is fed into the distribu-tion network after dehydration and removal of sulphur (WSN 1994).

This chapter investigates the production of natural gas and crude oil in India. It is not possibleto elaborate any further the different production possibilities. The allocation of the impacts toboth resources is explained in chapter 4.2.3.1.

8 Another name for this facility, used in the publications of OIL is Oil Collecting Station (OCS).

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4.2.2.2 Exploitation from Offshore AreasIn the western offshore area, there are 125 well platforms, each with 6 to 9 working wells thatspread under the seabed. Since 1984 water has been injected for pressure maintenance. Themajority of the wells are under secondary recovery. Presently 45% of the wells use productionwith gas lift. There are 6 water injection/process platforms to support the secondary recovery.Seventy to a hundred people live on each of the platforms (PETROTECH-ABSTRACTS

1995:249; ONGC 1995/01).

The crude and natural gas is transported from the well platforms to 28 process platforms. Forthis purpose 2,240 km of infield sub-sea pipelines and 875 km of trunk pipelines are used. Onthe process platforms the well fluid is separated into oil, gas and water (PETROTECH 1995).

The crude oil is sent By pipeline to the processing facilities in Uran. A share of 15% is trans-ported directly to refineries by tankers. In Uran, the crude oil is processed in crude stabilisationunits, stored in tanks and supplied to the refineries in Bombay. Other coastal refineries receivecrude through sea tankers (BATRA 1995; PETROTECH 1995).

The associated natural gas is compressed and dehydrated before putting it into the trunk sub-seapipelines to the two terminals in Uran and Hazira. Because of its H2S concentrations of 100 to120 ppm the free natural gas (sour gas) is also dehydrated. The present reservoir pressure of thefield is adequate to transport this gas directly to Hazira by pipeline. After meeting the local re-quirements, the remaining gas is fed into a pipeline at Hazira for delivery to other consumers. AtUran and Hazira, there are gas fractionating plants for the production of LPG (BATRA 1995;WSN 1994).

4.2.2.3 Materials and Land Use of the Onshore Production FacilitiesThe area of land use for the production activities is difficult to estimate because of the onshorefacilities are often spread over large areas and the land in-between is used for other purposes.An estimation of the land area used for the activities of OIL is made in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8: Land use of Oil India Ltd. for oil and gas production (JAGGI 1995)

Facilities Number Land use per unit (acres)

Total land use(1,000 m²)

Group gathering station 15 5.0 20.2Gas compressor station 12 5.0 20.2Water injection well 10 2.5 10.1Well 500 7.0 28.3Effluent treatment plant (ETP) 2 8.0 32.4Total land use (Oil India Ltd.) 111.2

It can be said that the pattern of land has changed, especially if the area was mainly agriculturalbefore (AGNIHORTI ET AL. 1992). The total land use for both oil companies is estimated to beabout 2.86 million m² {II.F-1} considering the information given by CBWP (1985/12); ÖKO(1994/12); JAGGI (1995) and VELCHAMY (1992). The amount of steel, used to construct thefacilities, is estimated at 532 thousand tonnes {II-B-2} considering the information given by ÖKO(1994/12).

4.2.2.4 Materials and Land Use of the Offshore Production FacilitiesThe data for the offshore production installations are given in Table 4.9. Over the years, wellplatform decks have increased in size, weight and complexity due to the addition of new facili-ties. The total weight of all necessary installations, most of it steel, is in the range of 400 to 500

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thousand tonnes {II-B-2}. The average size nowadays is 1,000 m². The total area covered withprocessing facilities can thus be estimated to be about 180,000 m². NEERI (1990/03) gives thearea with 902,500 m². The mean of these values is 541,250 m² {II-F-1}. The life expectancy ofthese facilities is estimated at 10 to 20 years (PETROTECH 1995; ONGC 1995/01).

Table 4.9: Number and weight of the production facilities in the offshore basin Bombay High (PETROTECH1995)

Number ofinstallations

Weight in tonnes(Maximum weight)

Well platforms 125 850 - 1,500 (10,000)Process platforms 28 2,100 - 2,200 (22,000)Water injection platform 6 4,700Living quarter platforms 5 ca. 5,000Flaring structures 20 ca. 1,000Pipelines 3,115 km n.a.Barges ca. 40 500 - 10,000Total estimated weight - 400,000 - 500,000

n.a. - not available

The aim at the VIII five-year plan9 is the construction of 31 new well platforms, 5 process plat-forms, 700 km pipeline with a structural tonnage of 110 thousand tonnes by April 1997. For thiswork, 25 barges are deployed (PETROTECH 1995; ONGC 1995/01).

4.2.2.5 Onshore Energy Use and FlaringEnergy is used for the following facilities:

• Steam and electricity generators

• Pump engines for oil, water and gas

• Gas compressors driven by diesel engines or electricity

• Fuel oil heaters used to reduce the viscosity of fuel oil in tanks

• Hot and cold flaring of natural gas

• Burning of natural gas to evaporate effluents in evaporation pits

The energy demand is met mainly by burning fossil fuels for power and steam generation. Asmall share of the energy needs is also met by other sources, for example solar panels {II-A-4}.The combustion devices are fired with crude oil, fuel oil, diesel oil, natural gas or fuel gas. OILmeets 95% of the energy demand for its activities with natural gas. The rest is delivered by otherpetroleum products like diesel oil and petrol. To reduce the emissions of SO2 and particles, fluegas scrubbers are sometimes installed (AGNIHORTI ET AL. 1992; JAGGI 1995; ONGC 1994/12).

The total use of natural gas is calculated with 4.88E+08 m³ per year {II-A-2}. This is based onthe data given by JAGGI (1995) and ONGC (1994/12).The amount of HSD used for onshoreproduction is estimated to be about 5.20E+07 kg {II-A-1} according to the available data for theONGC (GOEL 1995; PETROTECH 1995) and OIL (JAGGI 1995).

9 Goals for the governmental owned companies in India are normally planned in five year periods. The VIII planis running from 1992 to 1997.

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At the beginning of the production gas from a well is flared due to the lack of using facilities.This is called technical flaring. During the production period, there should be no flaring. The gascan be delivered to users. Because of variation in demand or stoppages, there are short flaringperiods of surplus natural gas. Gas with a low natural pressure, which is difficult to transport, isalways flared (ONGC 1994/12).

There are different types of flaring10. The burning of gas is called hot flaring. It can be done byreleasing the gas through a burner. Steam is injected to the flame to prevent the development ofsmoke and to lower the temperature of the flame. Gas is discharged also through submergedvents placed in pits that are filled up with effluent. Due to this, the effluent evaporates. Some-times the gas is released unburned through 90 to 120 m high pipes into the atmosphere11. For 30to 90 days the cold flaring leads to direct emissions of methane that has a high greenhouse gaspotential (SHARMA 1992; JAGGI 1995).

4.2.2.6 Offshore Energy Use and FlaringThe energy needs for the offshore fields are met by three power units, installed on processingplatforms, with a capacity of 4 to 5 MW12 each. The plants have dual fuel burners for both gasand fuel oil, but they use gas most of the time. One of the units lies idle as a reserve. At presenttwo working units possess an energy over-capacity, so there is no incentive to adopt energysavings. The offshore platforms use 7.8% of the natural gas {II-A-2} for their requirements13

(ONGC 1994/12; PETROTECH 1995).

HSD is also used offshore in the production facilities. The average use is given bySHARMA/SHARMA (1994/04) and GOEL (1995) and is estimated at 70.9 thousand tonnes {II-A-1}. For electricity demand {II-A-4}, there are solar panels installed on a small number of plat-forms (ONGC 1994/12).

4.2.2.7 Emissions of Air Pollutants during Exploration and ExploitationTable 4.10 shows the amount of different energy carriers used for the production facilities andfor the drilling activities {I-A.1, 2, II-A1, 2}. The data source of the values stated are given in thechapters 4.2.1.4, 4.2.2.5 and 4.2.2.6.

Table 4.10: Total quantity of energy carriers used for the oil and gas production including the exploration ac-tivities during one year

Offshore Offshore(GJ)

Onshore Onshore(GJ)

Flared gas 899 Mm³ 36.9 955 Mm³ 39.2Fuel gas 532 Mm³ 21.8 488 Mm³ 20.0HSD 91,200 t 3.01 60,700 t 2.21

Data about emissions of the combustion devices like generators, etc., was available only forsingle facilities. TEMIS requires for its calculations, concentrations of the pollutants in the fluegases. The combustion of the fuel is estimated with generic devices. The eta (= efficiency) of

10Types of flaring are described by SHARMA (1992). He shows advantages and disadvantages of different sys-tems.

11This is done for example near tea-gardens and agriculture in the 3 - 4 month period of flowering. See also un-der chapter 4.2.2.13.

12An amount of 8,000 - 10,000 m³ fuel gas per day is burnt to produce 1 MW.13In WSN (1994) it is stated that the ONGC uses 7.74% of the produced gas for internal needs in 1993/94 andthat a part of 11.9% was flared. In ONGC (1994) the gas utilisation is given with 91% for the same period.

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these virtual devices is taken to be 1. The combustion devices deliver energy-virtual for theextraction process in an amount as given in Table 4.10 14. In this study it is assumed that naturalgas is used as the normal fuel to meet the energy demands.

Table 4.11 shows the data for the combustion devices {I-D-1..5, II-D-1..5}. The values for theflue gas concentrations of pollutants are estimated with the help of the data given by ÖKO(1994/12), FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1994) and the available emission data for India. The valuesinvestigated by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1994) for diesel generators are considerably higher thanthe values in TEMIS. The estimation considers the available information.

Table 4.11: Combustion devices for diesel oil and gas. Analysis of the literature values, data from Hazira andestimation for the inventory (mg/Nm³)

NOX PM CO CH4 NMVOC N2OHSD minimum 175 5 100 0 21 0.0HSD maximum 3,500 500 1,000 10 250 5.0HSD mean 1,568 209 409 2 126 1.2HSD† 4,800 530 2,000 84 220 18.6HSD estimation 4,000 500 1,500 40 200 5.0Gas minimum 143 0.5 80 5 10 0.1Gas maximum 500 10.0 322 100 50 5.0Gas mean 273 3.0 165 16 31 1.3Gas combustion estimation 300 4.0 250 15 30 1.0Flaring † 1,200 - - 3,000 450 -Hazira flaring ‡ 133 44 9 - - -Gas flaring estimation 1,200 40 80 3,000 450 4.0

Sources: † FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995 ‡ SHARMA 1992 All others ÖKO 1994/12

The type of flares operated has a considerable influence on the combustion conditions. Dataabout the flares used in India was not available. FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1994) assumed the effi-ciency of flares in different regions of the world to be 94% to 99%. The efficiency is estimatedfor India to be about 96%. The unburned rest of the natural gas is released as methane andNMVOC. The value for NOX emissions is estimated with the data given by FRISCHKNECHT ET

AL. (1994).

For flaring, there is no standard prescribed, and no quantitative limit on glare and smoke hasbeen specified. It is assumed that on average 4% of onshore and 0.5% of offshore flaring is coldflaring. The emissions of methane and NMVOC are shown in Table 4.12 {I, II-D-5} (OIL 1995).

Table 4.12: Release of greenhouse gases during cold flaring and emission of SO2 in evaporation pits (kg/TJ)

Offshore OnshoreSO2 - 19.40CH4 2.74 43.00NMVOC 0.45 7.07

Table 4.12 also gives the value for the SO2 from evaporation pits {II-D-1}. About 240 thousandtonnes of formation water produced during the activities of OIL is evaporated accompanyingthe gas flaring in evaporation pits. Due to this evaporation additional amounts of sulphur, that is

14TEMIS uses normally the real efficiency of combustion devices for the transformation of fuels into process heator mechanical power. These types of energies are delivered to the process. The necessary information like typesof energy demand or the real efficiency of Indian combustion devices were not available. Only the knownamount of used fuels was available for the calculations.

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solved in the effluents, are emitted. The amount from this source is estimated to be about 5.81kg sulphur per cubic meter of evaporated water. This is the mean of information given byAGNIHORTI ET AL. (1992), JAGGI (1995) and SURRENDER ET AL. (1992).

4.2.2.8 Onshore Use of Water and Discharge of EffluentsOnshore sites, there is a need for injection water. A large part of this demand is met by purifiedwater from the crude oil production. In smaller amount, water is used for other purposes suchas cleaning of equipment or sanitary water. The amount of used ground and surface water iscalculated at 40% of the treated effluent with 4.71E+12 g {II-B-1}. This value is in the samerange as the data available for the production of OIL (JAGGI 1995).

Effluents are produced mainly from the GGS during the separation of crude oil, associated gasesand the so-called formation water. The water contains dissolved mineral salts and in small con-centrations dissolved petroleum products. The quantity of formation water involved varies fromwell to well according to the water content of the crude. It can range from almost zero to 90%.The older the well, the more formation water will be in the crude oil. Due to the water injection,the crude in the formation is mixed with the injected water. With the crude oil production ofOIL today an average of 70% of formation water is connected. This adds up to 1.9 million ton-nes annually (JAGGI 1995; PETROTECH 1995; TERI 1993/01).

Effluents are produced also by other production activities, for example by the cleaning ofequipment. With rainfalls there is increased amounts of effluents. During the activities of OIL,about 2.9 million tonnes effluents are produced annually and it is expected that due to newtechniques the water quantity will double in the next few years (OIL 1995).

The effluent (formation water) from the GGS is the object of de-oilier treatment and is passedthrough a series of tanks where the free oil & grease (1 to 2%) is recovered by skimming15. Theremaining water then passes through a water-oil clarification plant for further recovery of resid-ual oil. Demulsifier and de-oilier chemicals are used for reducing the oil content. The oil contentof the water following the treatment process is 0.2 to 0.3% (WSN 1994).

In the western region there are nine ONGC effluent treatment plants. The capacity should beenhanced to 6.2 million m³ per annum with seven more plants in the next few years. OIL hasfour formation water clarification plants for the onshore fields, with a total annual capacity of1.98 million m³. The ratio between crude oil and the total amount of treated water rangesamong 0.23 and 1.1 at different sites. The average ratio for the specific water production in In-dia is assumed at 1.05. The estimation was necessary because overall data for India was notavailable. FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) estimated the value to be 1 for the situation in Europe.The total amount of treated water is calculated at 11.8 million tonnes per annum (Mtpa) {I, II-C-2}. This is the starting point for the estimates made in Table 4.13 (OIL 1995; ONGC 1995/03;PETROTECH 1995).

Producers of oil and gas have several options for the disposal of the produced water:

• • The treated water can be disposed into deep horizons of the formation through speciallydrilled disposal wells

• Thermal evaporation in pits. The heat required is delivered by burning natural gas. An-other possibility is surface evaporation

15A new possibility for the treatment of wastewater from GGS is the purification by electroflotation. It seemspossible to reduce the oil content to 10 ppm. For electroflotation no chemicals are needed and no sludge is pro-duced because the oily overflow can be recycled in the GGS (ONGC 1994/12).

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• Discharge of the treated water into rivers or the sea

• The water can be used instead of tube well water for the secondary recovery. It ispumped into the oil bearing reservoirs through deep injection wells. An advantage ofthis method is that the possibility of subsidence is reduced

• Recycling of the water for use in the production facilities

• Use of the water for irrigation

About 60% of the wastewater from the production sites of OIL is re-injected, 20% is evapo-rated and 20% is discharged into rivers. The water balances of both ONGC (western region)and of OIL are shown in Table 4.13. The last column gives the estimated split of the disposedtreated water in percentages (JAGGI 1995; PETROTECH 1995; WSN 1994).

Table 4.13: Water Balances for the western region of ONGC and for the production of OIL and estimates for theinventory

Western RegionONGC

Oil India Ltd. Estimation for theLCI

Total water 7,020 t/a 100.0% 3.86 Mtpa 100.0% 11.8 MtpaFormation water n.a. n.a. 1.93 Mtpa 50.0% 60%Well water n.a. n.a. 1.93 Mtpa 50.0% 40%Disposal in wells 1,860 t/a 26.6% 1.11 Mtpa 28.8% 16%Injection water 3,540 t/a 50.4% 1.58 Mtpa 40.9% 50%Evaporated 1,620 t/a 23.0% 0.584 Mtpa 15.1% 18%Discharged n.a. n.a. 0.584 Mtpa 15.1% 16%ETP capacity n.a. n.a. 2.92 Mtpa 75.6% -

n.a. - not availableSources: ONGC 1995/03; JAGGI 1995

The environmental impacts of evaporation are considered in chapter 4.2.2.7 (concerning airpollution). The injection and disposal of water through wells is not evaluated as an environ-mental impact because it occurs inside the boundaries of the production process. This reflectsthat extracted water is simply re-injected. Nevertheless this action might affect the groundwaterin the concerned area.

4.2.2.9 Offshore Use of Water and Discharge of EffluentsToday there are 164 injectors at 35 different well platforms. The water requirement is met bythree water-processing platforms with a total capacity of 180 thousand m³ per day (= 65.4Mtpa) {II-B-1}. Sea water is lifted up and purified by adding chemicals like hypochloride fordisinfection, coagulants and defoamers. The high pressure injection water is distributed througha network of pipelines (PETROTECH-ABSTRACTS 1995:233).

A share of the wastewater from offshore platforms is discharged after treatment directly into thesea. The remaining effluents are treated onshore at the processing terminals of Uran and Hazira(PETROTECH 1995). The total amount of effluents discharged from onshore production isestimated at 5.13 Mtpa {II-C-2}. This average is based on the assumptions of NEERI (1990/03)and RANA (1992).

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4.2.2.10 Emission of Water Pollutants with the EffluentsThe discharge of the effluents is regulated by the State Pollution Control Board. Normally thestandards of the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) are prescribed. A new guideline forthe quality of the effluents from drilling sites is expected to be issued in the next future. Addi-tional limits now set values for seven heavy-metals will be prescribed (HAWK 1995). Theplanned standards for onshore drilling sites and the general standards for effluents are given inTable 4.14.

Table 4.14: Tolerance limits according to IS 2490-1981 for the discharge of effluents into different environ-ments (mg/l) and planned Indian standard for onshore and offshore drilling as presented by HAWK

(1995)

OnlandSurface

PublicSewer

OnlandIrrigation

OnshoreDrilling

OffshoreDrilling

Coastalarea

BOD 30 350 100 30 - 100COD 250 - - - - 250TDS 2,100 2,100 2,100 - - -TSS 100 600 200 100 - 100Oil & grease 10 20 10 10 100 20Phenol 1 5 - - - 5

Table 4.15 shows the range of measured values for water pollutants in the effluents. The avail-able information was not sufficient to calculate average concentrations describing the situationin India. The available data (CBWP 1985/12; ONGC 1994/04:44; PAUL 1995;SHARMA/CHAUDHARI 1992; SURRENDER ET AL. 1992) and the limits shown above were used togive estimates of the emissions of water pollutants originating from drilling and production siteseffluents {I, II-C2..C-7}.

Table 4.15: Minimum and maximum concentrations of water pollutants in the effluents of drilling and produc-tion sites and estimates for the LCI (mg/l)

Minimum Maximum Offshoreestimation

Onshoreestimation

BOD 20 70 50 30COD 46 200 200 70TDS 400 10,000 1,500 1,200TSS nil 4,000 100 90Oil & grease nil 1,000 20 10Phenol n.a. n.a. 0 0

4.2.2.11 On- and Offshore WastesThe chemical and biological treatment of effluents produces sludge. Normally this sludge isdumped at landfills or it is burnt (ONGC 1994/12). The ratio between sludge and treated wateris assumed to be 0.1%. This reflects the data found for refineries (0.03%) and the informationgiven by SURRENDER ET AL. (1992) and CHAND (1992), 5% and 0.11% respectively. Thus thetotal amount of sludge is 12.8 Mtpa onshore and 5.23 Mtpa offshore {II-E-2}. The oil content insludge varies between 17 and 25 per cent (VELCHAMY/SINGH/NEGI 1992).

One type of waste is called BSW, for bottom-sediment and water sludge. This is a complexmixture of heavy, solid-like paraffin-components, with occluded water and oil. These solidifiedfractions are either entrained with the crude or else precipitated out when the temperature and

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pressure are lowered in production. This is the case when the crude oil is stored. The composi-tion of tank bottom sludge is given in Table 4.16. The sludge rate is estimated to be about 0.2%of the stored crude oil {II-E-2}. The development of BSW is only linked with the production ofcrude oil and not with the production of natural gas. In Uran for example with processing facili-ties for 20 million tonnes per annum, 40,000 tonnes of sludge are accumulated every year(PETROTECH-ABSTRACTS 1995:259; TERI 1993/01).

Table 4.16: Composition of tank bottom sludge in Uran (PETROTECH-ABSTRACTS 1995:259)

Asphaltene 30%Resins 10%Wax 17%Oil 32%Other components 11%

Today the domestic waste from offshore platforms is dumped in polyethylene bags into the sea.For new installations treatment of the biodegradable parts with a shredder is recommended.Non-biodegradable wastes should be brought on land (NEERI 1990/03).

4.2.2.12 Dismantling and Reclaiming of the Production FacilitiesThe environmental impacts of production do not end with the extraction of the crude oil andnatural gas. The production facilities must be dismantled after the plant ceases production. Foroffshore production this creates big problems as was demonstrated by the North Sea platform„Brent Spar“ in June 1995. Some experts claimed that the most environmentally friendly solu-tion was to send the platform to the bottom of the sea. This would result in tonnes of hazardouswastes, stored on the platform, being dumped into the north sea. Bringing the platform onshorefor dismantling is claimed to be too expensive by the owners SHELL. Protests initiated byGREENPEACE finally prevented the dumping of the platform. Other companies plan to blowup their facilities. A future problem is what to do with the pipelines laid in the North Sea onceproduction in the North Sea ceases (TAZ 1995). These problems need to be addressed in Indiasoon because platforms and onshore production facilities are reaching the end off their 20 yearsproduction life span {II-E-2}. Information regarding these problems could not be found.

4.2.2.13 Other Environmental and Social ImpactsA glimpse at the impacts of crude oil and natural gas production, which are not easy to quantifyis given in the following section.

Social impacts are encountered with the resettlement of people on account of the establishmentof production facilities in one area. The Naga Students Federation have demanded a re-negotiation of the system of royalties for oil exploration activities in Nagaland. The students'protests should lead to increased sums of compensation for owners of mining land and greaterbenefits in general to the Naga people (WSN 1994).

Noise levels during the construction period may be as great as 85 to 95 dB (A) at a distance of50 ft (15,24 m) {II-F-3}. Sources of noise are construction equipment like scrapers, graders,trucks and pavers. Operational noises are generally less than those of either the construction ordrilling project phases. Generators for steam production however may produce noise levels at69 to 75 dBA at 50ft {II-F-3}. Workers are exposed to this hazard during the operation phase(AGNIHORTI ET AL. 1992).

The hot gas flaring produces a special impact on plants surrounding a production site with theinfluence of light and heat {II-F-2}. Darkness is essential for some plants such as rice crops and

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tea during their period flowering. Thus plant cultivation should be at least 65 metres from theflares. To avoid this negative impact, the natural gas is released for the period of floweringwithout being burnt. This type of flaring to prevent damage from cultivated plants can extend 3to 4 months. Cold flaring is restricted to production neighbouring of plantations. The problemwith it is that it will lead to a high emission of the greenhouse gas methane (JAGGI 1995; OIL1995).

Hydrocarbon emissions into the sea are caused by 24% from tankers and by 2% from offshoreplatforms {II-C-7}. The appearance of tar balls along the beaches of west coast India, due totankers plying the shipping lanes of the Indian seas, is a routine phenomenon. It is estimated thataround 1,000 tonnes of tar balls are received per year (PETROTECH-ABSTRACTS 1995).

Accidents bring their own environmental impacts {II-G-6}. A few examples are quoted. In May1993, a rupture occurred at the riser of the Bombay High-Uran trunk pipeline, about 2,000 m³(1,600 tonnes) of oil spilled into the sea. Approximately 40% of the oil evaporated. This acci-dent has resulted in an estimated loss in crude oil production of 282 thousand tonnes (WSN1994; PETROTECH 1995).

A Blow-Out is another form of accident associated with the production of crude and naturalgas, and occurs once in every few years in the country. The last one started at January 8, 1995during the drilling of an oil well in Andhra Pradesh, because insufficient drilling mud was usedto neutralise the formation pressure {I-G-6}. The flames of the fire were 100 to 200 m high andcould be seen at a distance of 40 km. The fire consumed 1 to 1.3 million cubic metres of gas perday and caused a financial loss of 1.7 million Rupees per day. More than 5,000 villagers in thesurrounding area were evacuated {I-G-1}. After one month the well started spilling out a showerof crude oil affecting an area of 5 km². Thick black smoke accompanied the flames (BLOW-OUT

1995).

Several attempts were made to control the fire with plastic explosives. These actions were exe-cuted in co-operation with foreign fire fighting experts. Their high financial demands and thelack of planning on the part of ONGC led to several differences and delays. It took 61 days tofinally put the fire out. It was reported as the biggest blaze in the history of the Indian petroleumindustry. The costs to date are 411 million Rupees (US$ 13.3 million) for fire-control expensesand damage to equipment. A few years prior a blow out occurred in the western region ofONGC (BLOW-OUT 1995; ONGC 1995/03).

4.2.3 Quantitative Aspects of Oil and Natural Gas Extraction

4.2.3.1 Allocation of the Investigated Impacts on the two ResourcesThe allocation of environmental burdens to different outputs in a multi-output system is a prob-lem often met in the practice of LCA. The environmental burdens investigated in the previouschapter for the gas and oil production must be related to an amount of product. This makes itnecessary to allocate the impacts between oil and gas. Both are products of the same processes.Sometimes the necessary steps are different for both resources, but it was not possible to inves-tigate these differences in the limited time available. Possible general criteria for the allocationare:

• Energy content

• Mass of the outputs

• Economic value of the products

• Volume of the outputs

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• Molar content of the outputs

• Exergy content16

FEYTER (1994) compared a few methods for the petroleum sector and showed that there arerelative small differences. He compared the ratio of natural gas to crude oil if different units areused to express the amount. The allocation ratio between crude and gas varies from 31:69 (bymass), 35:65 (by heating value) to 37:63 (by prices). The impacts in this study are allocated bythe energy content of the products. This makes it possible to use processes in TEMIS with thesame specifications for both resources.

KNOEPFEL (1994) compared the general allocation and a more specific combination of generaland direct allocation for the case of North Sea offshore production. He investigated the specificdifferences in the production of natural gas and crude oil. Therefore basic engineering knowl-edge of the system is necessary to determine if impacts of single processes can be allocated di-rectly to one of the products. The environmental burdens of gas treatment are for example di-rectly allocated to the gas exploitation.

KNOEPFEL (1994) showed that, for the indicator oil emissions into water, the general allocationleads to higher values for the gas and lower values for the oil production than a combined allo-cation that considers different ways of production. The share allocated to the production of oilincreased from 87% to 98%.

The impacts of crude oil and natural gas production were allocated in this study by the lowerheating value of the products. This assumes for both products the same impacts. It is likely thata more specific allocation could change some of the results for the LCI. The gas production islinked with fewer impacts in the case of water pollutants than assumed in the LCI for India be-cause some gas is explored as free gas. This causes smaller quantities of effluents. For the ex-ploitation of free gas less auxiliary energy is necessary because the efforts for pressure mainte-nance are smaller (KNOEPFEL 1994). The impacts of crude oil exploitation might turn to behigher in a more specified inventory of the Indian situation. BUWAL (1995) found on the otherside higher values in the case of gas exploitation for some indicators. The reasons for the differ-ences are not quoted. FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) used also a general allocation with the LHVfor a comparable study about the petroleum sector in Europe.

4.2.3.2 Final Inventory for the Petroleum ExploitationTable 4.17 shows the final life cycle inventory for the supply of natural gas and crude oil in Indiafor all quantitative indicators. To estimate the environmental impacts of the drilling activities,the impacts of one year are related to the amount of natural gas and crude oil produced in thisyear. Normally these impacts should be spread over the life time of the constructed productionfacility. For a broad estimation, the chosen way seems to be reliable because the activities ofdrilling and the production of crude and gas has not changed essentially in the last years. Theburdens of the production were investigated in the previous chapter. They are related to theamount of total products (gas and crude) in one year expressed in MJ or TJ. The specific val-ues (MJ/MJ, g/MJ or kg/TJ) are shown in Table 4.17. They are used for the calculations withTEMIS 2.0.

The data estimates for the exploitation of imported crude oil are shown in Table 4.17. Thesedata are used also for crude oil throughput to international refineries and to calculate the im-pacts of crude oil imports to India. It was not possible to make an inventory for the world-widecrude oil exploitation and the specific throughput to the Indian market. The international refiner- 16The exergy concept takes into account both the quality and the quantity of energy carriers. It uses the workcontent instead of the heat content of a fuel (ENGELENBURG/NIEUWLAAR 1994).

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ies are described in chapter 5. These data are used to calculate the impacts of petroleum-productimports.

The two last columns in the table show data as investigated by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995),BUWAL (1995) and ÖKO (1994/12). The values of FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. are calculated for anaverage import of crude oil to Europe with a share of 50:50 for on- and offshore exploitation.The values found by ÖKO (1994/12) for the energy use consider the efficiency of the used com-bustion processes like boilers or generators. These processes have an efficiency (eta) of less than1. The original values of ÖKO are divided by the efficiencies to compare the data with the In-dian values.

Data for the import of crude oil are estimated using these three sources and the Indian values.To avoid a bias in the calculation, values for the import are chosen in a way that they do notdiffer strongly from the values investigated for India. This does not totally reflect the true valuesbut otherwise the results of the LCI would be influenced mainly by the different share of importsfor the two fuels LPG and kerosene. The values for kerosene are influenced more by the esti-mation for imports than the results for LPG.

The capacity of the Indian extraction processes is calculated for the present situation. Thisvalue has an influence on the steel, cement and land use of the process module. All other valuesare comparable with the data for a 1,000 MW process in TEMIS.

The Indian data for the energy use are in the range of the values found by the Öko-Institute andFRISCHKNECHT ET AL. But the Öko values do not consider the flaring of natural gas. The Indianvalues might turn out to be higher in a more specific inventory where more uses of energy wereinvestigated. Energy use will rise in the future due to greater efforts for secondary and tertiaryrecovery. Flaring consumes about 3 to 6 per cent of the produced energy carriers. The necessaryenergy use for the extraction is 2 to 3 per cent. Additional emissions of sulphur dioxide fromnon-combustion sources are not investigated in the ÖKO study. The investigated emission ofhydrocarbons is also in the range of the values as investigated by BUWAL and ÖKO. The val-ues found by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. are higher than the values found for India but they consideremissions due to the flaring that are not shown directly for the Indian situation. These emissionsare considered in the combustion process.

The comparison of the data for discharged drilling mud shows much smaller values in the studyof ÖKO than in the LCI for India. The origin of the value is not quoted in the ÖKO study. Thusit is not possible to give an explanation of the differences. In India between 150 and 640 kg ofcuttings are discharged for the production of 1 TJ petroleum resources. The value found byFRISCHKNECHT ET AL. is nearly the same. The values for wastes are of a comparable figure.

The use of water investigated by BUWAL and FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. is considerably smallerthan that found for India. Different definitions of water use make an explanation difficult. About4,500 litres of effluents are discharged in India for the production of 1 TJ crude oil or naturalgas. FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. found a higher value for the discharge of effluents. One reason mightbe that re-injection of water is not considered in this value. The values found by BUWAL forthe emission of water pollutants are approximately in the range of the values investigated forIndia. Even with the higher amount of effluents FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. found smaller values forsome water pollutants.

It is difficult to assess the overall reliability of the Indian data. The environmental impacts ofpetroleum extraction vary considerably from place to place. Thus large variations from investi-gated indicators are normal. The LCI is based on some unreliable estimations. A large deviationfrom the stated figure for water pollutants is probable. Comparison with other studies howeverindicates the values found lie within a possible range.

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Table 4.17: Final data for the LCI, data for international extraction and comparison with the range of valuesfound by other authors

Unit Offshore(India)

Onshore(India)

Import (international)

Imports to Europea Imports toEuropeb

Capacity MW 39,348 21,277 1,000 1,000 1,000Product crude t/a 1.57E+07 1.12E+07 - - 7.12E+05Crude MJ/a 6.25E+11 4.45E+11 - 2.84E+10 2.83E+10Natural gas m³/a 1.34E+10 4.62E+09 - - 3.92E+06Natural gas MJ/a 5.48E+11 1.89E+11 - - 1.61E+08Total products MJ/a 1.17E+12 6.34E+11 - 2.84E+10 2.84E+10Supplied gas MJ/a 5.11E+11 1.50E+11 - - -

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Flared gas m³/a 8.99E+08 9.55E+08 - - 3.16E+07Flared gas MJ/MJ 0.0315 0.0618 0.046 - 0.046

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Fuel gas MJ/a 2.18E+10 2.00E+10 - - -Fuel gas MJ/MJ 0.0186 0.0316 - 0.0012 to 0.01 -HSD use kg 9.12E+07 6.07E+07 - - -HSD use MJ/MJ 4.04E-03 4.06E-03 0.02 0.003 to 0.85 0.018Total auxiliary energy MJ/MJ 0.0226 0.0357 0.02 0.003 to 0.85 0.018SO2 kg/TJ - 19.4 - - -CH4 kg/TJ 2.7 43.0 30 2 to 137 (40/46) 51NMVOC kg/TJ 0.4 7.1 10 0 to 36 166

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Drilling mud g/a 7.52E+10 3.18E+11 - - - (no indicator) g/MJ 0.064 0.501 - 1.00E-09 -

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Chemicals g/a 2.03E+10 7.26E+10 - - -Chemicals g/MJ 0.017 0.115 0.12 - 0.12

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Steel g 4.50E+11 5.32E+11 1.0E+10 2.50E+10 2.24E+09Cement g 1.65E+11 9.92E+11 4.0E+09 8.00E+09 2.14E+09

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Raw water g/a 6.54E+13 5.30E+12 - - -Raw water g/MJ 55.7 8.4 10 0.67/? 0.98

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Effluent total kg 5.23E+09 1.28E+10 - - -Effluent discharged kg 5.23E+09 2.93E+09 - - -Effluent evaporated kg - 2.12E+09 - - -Effluent discharged kg/TJ 4,458 4,622 4,500 - 13,000BOD mg/l 50 30 - - -BOD kg/TJ 0.223 0.139 0.14 < 0.10/ < 0.09 0.0049COD mg/l 200 70 - - -COD kg/TJ 0.892 0.324 0.32 < 0.10/ < 0.09 0.0489TDS mg/l 1,500 1,200 - - -TDS kg/TJ 6.69 5.55 5.6 < 0.10/1.29 -TSS mg/l 100 90 - - -TSS kg/TJ 0.446 0.416 0.42 1.56/1.48 -Oil & grease mg/l 20 10 - - -Oil & grease kg/TJ 2.09 0.0462 1.5 0.67/1.56 3.12

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Cuttings kg/a 1.71E+08 4.05E+08 - - -Cuttings kg/TJ 146 639 470 - 472Waste kg/a 5.23E+06 1.28E+07 - - -Waste kg/TJ 14 80 40 32.7/88.2 20BSM (only for crude) kg/TJ 0.05 0.05 - -

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Load h/a 8,280 8,280 7,900 7,900 7,900Life time a 10 15 20 25 25Land use m² 541,250 2,855,536 200,000 200,000 1.70E+09a Values for petroleum extraction for OPEC, Northern Europe, North Sea and CIS as investigated by ÖKO(1994/12). The data for water use, water pollutants, HC emissions and wastes in this column were investigatedby BUWAL (1995) for the situation of crude oil and natural gas exploitation (oil/gas) for the demand in Europe.b The last column shows the values as investigated by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) for the import of crude oil toEurope (1:1 - onshore/offshore).

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This chapter deals with the life cycle inventory for the downstream petroleum sector. The firstsection describes the production of this sector in India. It is followed by an explanation of thepricing system for petroleum products. After that the three sections of the downstream sector -refineries, fractionating plants and bottling plants - are investigated. At the end of the chapteran inventory for the electricity generation is estimated.

5.1 The Petroleum Downstream Sector in IndiaThe petroleum refining industry is an old industry in the country. It started with a capacity of0.3 Mtpa (million metric tonnes per annum) after the Declaration of Independence in 1947. TheDigboi refinery is one of the oldest operating refineries in the world, established in 1901 andrebuilt in 1923. The refineries and the companies who own them {III-H-4} are given in Table 5.1.At present this industry consists of 12 operating refineries with a capacity of 54 Mtpa (IOC1994/12a).

Table 5.1: Downstream companies and refineries

Company RefineriesBPCL Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. BombayBRPL Bongaigaon Refineries and Petrochemicals Ltd. BongaigaonCRL Cochin Refinery Ltd. CochinHPCL Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. Visag (Vishakhapatnam), BombayIOC Indian Oil Corporation Barauni, Digboi, Gujarat,

Guwahati, Haldia, MathuraMRL Madras Refinery Ltd. Madras

In refineries, the crude oil is processed to LPG, kerosene and other products. The first plant forthe production of LPG was set up in Delhi in 1960. During the 1970s, LPG was obtained solelyfrom refinery flue gases. As LPG is a clean fuel that can be used for domestic cooking, the gov-ernment made plans to considerably increase the supply. The commissioning of LPG extractionplants in Bombay in 1981 and Duliajan in Assam (OIL) in 1982 allowed LPG to be extractedfrom natural gas. The lean gas is fed to fertiliser plants or is used for other purposes. To processall the natural gas from the offshore region, the ONGC set up two other gas-processing plants,at Hazira and Uran near Bombay. The Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL) runs two plants inVizapur and near Baroda. All eight plants in India are situated near the point of exploitation oralong the pipelines (ARORA 1994; SHAMSUNDAR 1995).

The total petroleum sector was nationalised between 1965 and the early 1970s. Multinationalcompanies were taken over in order to enable the government to control this sector. The refiner-ies became public sector enterprises under the administrative control of the Ministry of Petro-leum and Natural Gas. Today the policy has changed and company shares are sold on the freemarket. In the future the market will be opened up to foreign investors {III-H-3}. The govern-ment will retain only 51 per cent of the shares (BUSINESS INDIA 1994).

One future project is the construction of a grassroots refinery in Daitari by the IOC in a jointventure with the Kuwait Petroleum Corporation who hold 26% the equity. This refinery isplanned to have a capacity of 6 Mtpa. The HPCL plans to construct refineries in collaborationwith foreign enterprises with capacities of 6 Mtpa in Mangalore and Dabhol. Similarly BPCL is

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setting up refineries of the same size in Bina and Jamnagar. Other projects are the NumaligarhRefinery in Assam with a planned capacity of 3 Mtpa, the Pannipat refinery (6 Mtpa), a refineryin Orissa (6 Mtpa) and the modernisation of existing refineries (BUSINESS INDIA 1994; IOC1994/12a; NRL 1994; OCC 1995; THE PIONEER 1995/1/15).

Table 5.2 shows the number of persons employed in the different categories of the petroleumindustry {I..VI-A-5} (IPNGS 1993).

Table 5.2: Employed persons in different sectors of the petroleum industry (IPNGS 1993)

Exploration & Production 58,864Refining 23,386Marketing 38,414Pipelines 3,312Research & development 3,035Others 14,340Grand Total 141,351

The amount and share of refinery products are centrally controlled by the governmental Oil Co-ordination Committee (OCC). The committee members are employees of the companies runningthe refineries or ministry officials. The Committee also controls the crude oil allocation and anyexpansion plans for the refineries. The retail prices for the products are fixed by this committee.This includes a cross subsidy system as described in chapter 5.2 (BUSINESS INDIA 1994, OCC1995).

Production in the refineries and fractionating plants is not sufficient to meet the demand in India.First priority has the production of diesel oil, because of its importance in the transportationsector as a fuel for trains and trucks. Kerosene is similar to diesel oil so that, if the prioritywould change, the ratio between kerosene and diesel oil could be varied by a margin of 30% {III-H-5}. At present, apart from being used for cooking and lighting by poor people, kerosene is notimportant for the Indian economy. Five to six times more diesel oil is produced than petrol, theworld-wide average is two to three times. For the production of LPG in the refinery, there areno competing products, except the lean gas {III-H-5} used for the refinery’s own energy demand(IOC 1994/12).

The refinery production has increased from 17 million tonnes in 1970/71 to over 48 million ton-nes in 1990/91. In 1993/94 the Indian refineries had a crude throughput of 54.3 million tonnes.Final production amounted to 53.8 million tonnes. The net production excluding internal de-mand by the refineries amounted to 51.3 million tonnes. The refining capacity is expected toincrease to approximately 73 Mtpa by the early part of ninth five-year-plan (CFHT 1995; TERI1993/01).

The refinery output-mix in recent years was 20% light distillates (LPG, petrol, motor gasoline),54% middle distillates (diesel oil, kerosene, aviation turbine fuel) and 26% heavy ends (fuel oils,lube oils, bitumen, coke). This represents a recent shift in output mix away from heavy ends tolight and middle distillates. It is notable that the capacity utilisation in Indian refineries, rangingfrom 75% to 164%, is remarkably high (TEDDY 1994; TERI 1993/01).

LPG and kerosene are also imported into the country. LPG is bought from companies in USA,Japan, Greece and a few Middle-East countries. There are two ports with the necessary facilitiesthat have a capacity of 6 Mtpa {III-H-3}. It is planned to set up new infrastructure facilities atports throughout the country in order to import LPG. The total sales of petroleum productsduring 1993/94 in India amount to 60.3 million tonnes. The consumption of petroleum productsis presently growing at a rate of 6% to 7% per year and is expected to reach a level of 150 mil-

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lion tonnes by the year 2010. The structure of the Indian market is shown in Table 5.3. It is un-clear why in 1992/93 there is such a large discrepancy between sales and actual availability ofkerosene. This discrepancy was not apart in previous years (MODAK 1995; SHARMA 1995;TEDDY 1994).

Table 5.3: Origin of LPG and kerosene in India in 1992/93 (TEDDY 1994)

LPG KeroseneImport 11% 40%Production Refineries 44% 60%Production Gas Processing 45% -Availability (thousand tonnes) 2,940 8,750Sales (thousand tonnes) 2,870 3,580

The LPG is filled into cylinders at a bottling plant. In the plant, the cylinders are also main-tained and repaired in case of defects. The bottling plants are run by the oil marketing compa-nies. Two types of bottling plants are common. Small plants with a capacity of 5,000 to 10,000tonnes per annum (tpa) or large bottling plants with an installed capacity from 25,000 up to130,000 tpa. The small plant meets the demand for LPG cylinders only in the town or city whereit is located. The large bottling plant may also feed the demand within a radius of up to 400 km(TERI 1989/03).

In India there are at present 83 existing LPG bottling plants and over 30 plants have been en-visaged {V-H-4}. Among the running facilities are 16 rail-fed bottling plants. They bottle onemillion tonnes of LPG every year. Due to the lack of rail-tank-wagons, part of the LPG has tobe delivered with road trucks to these plants. All over the country 65 bottling plants are road-fed. Every year they bottle 1.9 million tonnes LPG. LPG is filled into cylinders at 11 out of 12existing refineries. Likewise in the 8 fractionating plants for natural gas, most of which are lo-cated near the gas fields or pipelines. It is expected that more than 100 new plants will comeinto production in the private sector. At present four to six companies have begun bottling ac-tivities (ARORA 1994; MODAK 1995).

5.2 Energy Pricing Policy in IndiaEnergy prices in India are administered1 with the goal of pursuing certain social objectives. Theydo not reflect the production costs. A key concern of this policy is the provision of cheap fuelsin the domestic sector, for poorer sections of society and for fertiliser plants. The subsidy onkerosene is ostensibly to make a relatively clean and efficient fuel available to low income urbanand rural households. The primary reason for the subsidy is to make lighting available the ma-jority of the population {III, IV-H-2}. For LPG the primary objective in the 1960s and 1970s wasto promote its use, particularly in urban areas (BHANDARI/THUKRAL 1994).

Table 5.4 illustrates the costs of production and the selling prices for energy in India. The sub-sidisation for LPG and kerosene is 90 Rs and 70 Rs per GJ of energy content respectively {III,IV-H-1}. A rational energy pricing policy is very important for the purposes of long-term energyplanning. The petroleum products are divided into two main categories: the price administeredproducts and free trade products. The major products (for example kerosene, diesel oil, LPGand naphtha) belong to the price-administered category {III, IV-H-2}. The government fixes theex-storage point prices for them. These prices are beneath the level of the world market. About90% of the total volume of petroleum products sold and 95% of the petroleum products refinedfall under the price-administered category (TEDDY 1994; WSC 1994).

1Government administered pricing mechanism (APM)

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Table 5.4: Costs of production and selling prices for energy in 1993/94 (INDIA TODAY 1995)

LPG Kerosene Domesticelectricity

Irrigationelectricity

Unit Rs per 14.5 kg cylinder Rs per litre Rs per kWh Rs per kWh

Costs of production 142.30 5.03 1.48 1.36AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Selling price 83.20 2.4 0.79 0.15Total annual subsidies (million Rs) 9,260 24,010 27,660 81,980

To compensate for the loss to the refinery, the prices for other products, for example petrol orturbine fuel, are raised to make for an overall balance. The prices are calculated in such a waythat the refinery gets a return on their investment of 12% after tax. If the refinery meets the pro-duction plan target, it achieves a sufficient income (OCC 1995).

Since the liberalisation of the petroleum sector a large number of the products with intentionallyhigh prices were taken out of the control of the pricing mechanisms. They have been made freefor marketing. The volume of subsidised products has also been increasing due to growing de-mand. This has led to an increasing subsidy paid by the government to meet the balance for thepetroleum sector {III, IV-H-1}. The subsidy, paid for major petroleum products, is shown inTable 5.5. The reason for the difference in comparison with the figures in Table 5.4 for the paidsubsidies is not clear (THE ECONOMIC TIMES 1995/01).

Table 5.5: Subsidies in billion Rs on major petroleum products (THE ECONOMIC TIMES 1995/01)

1992/93 1993/94 1994/95Kerosene (Domestic) 33.04 37.85 41.01LPG (Domestic) 11.75 12.57 11.91Naphtha (Fertiliser) 5.32 5.03 5.39FO + LSHS (Fertiliser) 2.83 2.69 2.96Bitumen Packed 1.53 1.25 1.27Paraffin Wax 1.19 0.89 0.20HSD 1.20 3.45 22.05Total 56.86 63.73 84.79

It can be expected that this burden on the petroleum pool account will lead to new raises in theprices for petroleum products. The first attempts to reduce the oil pool account deficit weremade with the petrol and diesel oil price increases in February 1994 of about 7 per cent and 13per cent respectively. Kerosene, which enjoys the greatest subsidy, will be the last to be decon-trolled owing to its status as a mass consumption item and potential political resistance(BUSINESS INDIA 1994).

The prices of LPG and SKO are normally cheaper than the biomass fuels. The comparativecosts of cooking fuels are shown in Table 5.6 {III, IV-H-1}. The prices are related to the usefulenergy of the different fuels. This takes into account the efficiency of the cookstove. The lastincrease in the price of LPG of Rs 15 was followed from protests of urban communities and theincrease was swiftly reduced to 10 Rs. The increase was not without justification because be-tween 1984/85 and 1993/94 the cost advantage of LPG has actually gone up. Cooking foodwith LPG costs less than one-tenth the price of cooking with firewood and half that of kerosene.LPG is used mostly by the urban middle class and the rich (as described in chapter 1.2). In thepoor rural areas it is not available and under these circumstances the subsidising policy is notcompatible with its stated objects (DOWN TO EARTH 1995/02).

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Table 5.6: Comparative costs of cooking fuels (CFSAE 1985; DOWN TO EARTH 1995/02)

Energy source Unit Unit price(Rs)

Cost of useful energy(Rs/GJ)

Ratio of fuel costto LPG

Year 84/85 93/94 84/85 93/94 84/85 93/94Firewood 1 kg 0.65 2.00 542 1,667 6.03 11.34

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Kerosene (PDSa) 1 litre 1.90 2.70 107 135 1.19 0.92AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Kerosene (open market) 1 litre 4.00 6.00 225 299 2.50 2.03AAAAAAAA

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LPG 1 kg 3.60 6.50 90 147 1.00 1.00a PDS - Public distribution system (subsidised products)

Although the need to promote LPG no longer remains, the subsidisation scheme still continues.A dual pricing mechanism for LPG and kerosene is planned by the government and could leadto an increasing bias in the subsidy policy. It implies that upper middle and high income house-holds in urban areas, who already have access to subsidised LPG, will continue to receive thesubsidy, while lower middle and low income households will be increasingly forced to go for themore expensive fuels sold on the private parallel market2 (BHANDARI/THUKRAL 1994).

5.3 Production of LPG, Kerosene and other Petroleum Products from Crude Oil inIndian Refineries

The incoming crude oil is processed in different refinery units. The processes adopted in Indianrefineries can broadly be classified as follows (CBWP 1982):

• Fractionation and stabilisation are the basic refining processes for forming intermedi-ate fractions of specified boiling point ranges.

• Reforming is a process in which low octane naphtha, heavy gasoline and naphthalenerich stocks are converted to high octane gasoline blending stocks, aromatics and isobu-tane.

• Thermal and catalytic cracking are processes in which heavy oil fractions are brokendown into lower molecular weight fractions. The cracking can be done with the help ofheat or by using catalysts. The catalytic cracking is the key process in the production oflarge volumes of high octane gasoline stocks, furnace oil and other useful middle mo-lecular weight distillates. In the Indian refineries there is a total FCC (Fluid CatalyticCracking) capacity of 1 million tonnes per day. These units consume 1,000 tonnes ofcatalysts per day. The production of coke in this process amounts to 0.7% to 0.9% ofthe throughput. To regenerate the catalyst, this coke is also burnt in furnaces (IOC 1995;PETROTECH 1995).

• Hydrocracker units produce cleaner fuels, and can upgrade heavier fractions of crudeoil into more valuable middle distillates. In the hydrocracker process C-C bonds are bro-ken down and simultaneously hydrogenated in the presence of catalysts.

• Desulphurization is necessary to minimise the sulphur content of the products. Sulphuris by far the most predominant impurity in crude oil. It exists in the form of sulphides,polysulphides and thiophenes. Crude oil varies significantly in sulphur content and there-fore the processing scheme must be able to handle the crude oil of the maximum sulphurcontent that can occur (TERI 1993/01).

2BHANDARI/THUKRAL (1994) gave alternative proposals for subsidy reduction.

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• Hydrofinishing is the process that removes sulphur and nitrogen compounds, odour,colour and gum-forming materials as well as saturates olefins by catalytic actions.

• Coking is an operation to produce coke with the help of thermal cracking from heavyresiduals of the fuel oil distilled (FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995).

• Utility functions are for example the supply of steam, heat, electricity and cooling water.

These processes are connected in different ways in the refinery. The process flow depends onthe type of crude, the age of the refinery and the palette of products. A process flow diagram fora newly planned refinery in Numaligarh, Assam, is shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Simplified process flow diagram for the Numaligarh refinery (NRL 1994)

LPG is a by-product arising during the extraction and refining of crude oil. The quantityamounts to approximately 10 to 15% of the amount of petrol produced. The share of the refin-ery output is 2.5 wt% for LPG and 11.2 wt% for kerosene (DAS 1994; UBA 1992).

One parameter to measure the state of the art of refineries is the amount of fuel and loss. This isthe weight balance between the crude oil throughput of the refinery less the water content of thecrude and the output of products. The energy use includes the use for pipe inlets (OCC 1995;IOC 1994/12).

5.3.1 Energy UseOil refineries are one of the most energy consuming sectors. The energy intensity depends uponcrude oil characteristics, adopted processes and the finished product mix. The energy use in arefinery rises with the complexity of the processes. These are simple distillation, cracking, FCC(fluid catalytic cracking), hydrocracking. All Indian refineries, except one in Mathura, wereconstructed in the 1970s or earlier. At this time the crude oil prices were low and so their en-

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ergy efficiency was sub-optimal. All Indian refineries have FCC and there is one hydrocrackerunder construction. This is comparable to the state of the art in 1980’s US refineries. For1993/94, the fuel consumption ranges from 4.08% to 12.11% with an average of 5.1% of theoutput. The average for US refineries is about 4%. A reduction in energy consumption seems tobe possible. The potential scope for saving in refineries was identified at 10.9% in 1988/89. Itcould be achieved by improving the furnace efficiency, installation of co-generation gas turbines,process optimisation and waste heat recovery (CFHT 1995; OCC 1995; IOC 1994/12, 1995;TERI 1993/01).

The energy balance for an average 4.5 Mtpa refinery is shown in Table 5.7. The energy demandof the refinery is met with the following fuels: fuel gas, natural gas, dump gas, fuel oil, low sul-phur heavy stock (LSHS), naphtha, diesel oil (HSD), asphalt and coke from the FCC. Electricityis normally produced in co-generation with steam. Usually refineries use boilers with a capacityin excess of 200 kg fuel oil per hour (IIP 1994/12).

Table 5.7: Energy balance for a 4.5 Mtpa refinery with an energy demand of 364 MW (NEERI 1995)

Input Share Output ShareFuel 81.19% Products 1.66%Coke 18.62% Flue gas 7.26%Crude 0.19% Sea water (for cooling) 57.71%

Frictional loss 3.68%Radiation 7.90%Effluent water 0.96%Heat of reaction 4.45%Steam leaks 1.60%Steam tracking 5.53%Miscellaneous steam 2.62%Unaccounted 6.62%

Data for the energy use was available for the twelve running units. The average consumption ofelectricity, fuel oil, fuel gas and coke was calculated with these data. The data for the energy useare shown in Table 5.8 {III-A-1..4}. The refineries used fuels with a variety of lower heating val-ues. These are standardised for the inventory. A few refineries sell electricity of their co-generation plants to the state electricity boards. These quantities are subtracted from the totalamount. The production of electricity in India is investigated in chapter 5.6. The main energy forthe refineries is fuel oil with a share of 58% followed by fuel gas with a share of 27%.

Table 5.8: Use of auxiliary energy and flaring in the 12 running Indian refineries and the average use of energyin 1993/94 (CFHT 1995)

Sum of Indian re-fineries

Average of all refin-eries

Total (TJ) Share

Electricity (MWh) 123,241 10,270 444 0.38%Fuel gas (m³) 664,497 55,375 31,132 26.87%Fuel oil (t) 1,623,517 135,293 67,684 58.43%Coke (t) 262,905 21,909 10,450 9.02%

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Flaring of gas (m³) 130,878 10,907 6,132 5.29%

Total - - 115,842 100.00%

The difference between input and output in Indian refineries in 1993/94 reached from 0.61% to1.29% of the output. The average of these losses for 1993/94 in India was 0.95%. Today it is

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possible to reduce the loss to 0.5-0.6% (OCC 1995; IOC 1994/12). The share of flaring in theselosses is not clear. For this study the share of flaring in the total losses is estimated to be 30%.This considers also the information about the hydrocarbon emissions of refineries as described inchapter 5.3.2.3. This estimation is also in the range of values found for European refineries(FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995). Table 5.8 shows the amount of flared gas. This is considered asan additional energy use.

5.3.2 Emission of Air Pollutants

5.3.2.1 Standards for Emissions and Ambient Air QualityRecently the statutory requirements for pollution control have become stricter, especially afterthe enactment of the Environmental Protection Act in 1986. Air-emissions standards for sulphurdioxide and particulate matter (PM) have been evolved by the Central Pollution Control Board(CPCB). Besides the standards for concentrations the height of the stacks is prescribed. Thestandards for sulphur dioxide emissions are provided in Table 5.9. To secure nation wide com-pliance with these prescribed standards task forces have been constituted by the CPCB for themajor industries (TERI 1993/01).

Table 5.9: Air pollution emission standards for SO2 from oil refineries in India (CBWP 1985/07)

Process SO2 Emission LimitsDistillation 0.25 kg per tonne of feedCatalytic cracker 2.5 kg per tonne of feedSulphur recovery unit 120 kg per tonne of sulphur in the feed

To control the prescribed standards, sulphur dioxide is measured on-line in a few refineries.Other emissions of air pollutants (CO, NOX, PM) are controlled only one off testing. Along withthe control of sulphur dioxide emissions, parameters for the ambient air quality are monitored inand around the refineries. Thus it is also possible to obtain some information about the pollutiondue to spread emissions. Ambient air quality criteria are prescribed for different categories ofusage. They are shown in Table 5.10 (IOC 1995; TERI 1993/01).

Table 5.10: Ambient air quality criteria (µg/m³) (TERI 1993/01; TREND 1995)

Category SO2 NO2 CO SPMGeneral: Annual Average 80 100 - 200General: 24 h Average 130 200 - 400General: 1 h Average 655 470 - - Sensitive: Annual Average 30 30 1,000 100Sensitive: 24 h Average 30 30 - 200Industrial/mixed 120 120 5,000 500Residential/rural 80 80 2,000 200

In the discussion of environmental impacts, the newly set up refinery in Mathura is of specialimportance. This refinery is located about 40 km upwind of Agra, the site of India’s most im-portant tourist attraction, the Taj Mahal. Before it was built, it was discussed whether the refin-ery, along with other local sources of acid pollutants, causes damages to this famous monument.Accordingly the prescribed standards and the pollution controls in this refinery are the strictestin the country. This refinery is run by the Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) that attempts to influ-ence the public opinion with an open public information policy (GOYAL ET AL. 1990).

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5.3.2.2 Sources of Air PollutantsDirect emissions from a refinery consist of exhaust gases from the burning of fuels in furnaces,boilers and motors. Surplus fuel and refinery gases are flared. Uncontrolled emissions of therefinery are those of hydrocarbons due to leaks. They can only be monitored indirectly by am-bient air quality measurements (IIP 1994/12; IOC 1995; OCC 1995).

There are two types of sources for SOX in the refinery. The first is the combustion of fuels thatcontain sulphur. Except for one refinery in Digboi that uses fuel oil with a sulphur content of4 wt%, all refineries use fuel oil with a sulphur content between 0.2 wt% and 0.6 wt%. Somerefineries also reduce the sulphur content of the fuel gases to minimise the emissions of sulphurdioxides (NEERI 1995).

The other sources are FCC, flaring and the Sulphur Recovery Unit (SRU). The share for bothtypes is half of the total emissions. This amounts in the Mathura refinery to 50 kg/h from flaring,150 kg/h from FCC and 60 to 70 kg/h from SRU. The emission of SO2 from these sourcesbased on the given data is estimated to be about 6.7 kg/TJ {III-D-1} (IOC 1994/12a; IOC 1995).

Hydrocarbons are emitted without control in various parts of the refinery due to leaks in thesystem. The losses are due to evaporation, losses in tank operation, losses due to refilling ac-tions, losses with the wastewater and flaring of lean gas. Storage facilities are the most signifi-cant sources of hydrocarbon emissions. Vapours are either emitted when storage tanks ‘breathe’or when vapours are displaced during filling and when liquids evaporate. Floating roof tanks areprovided for the storage of high vapour pressure hydrocarbons to minimise evaporation lossfrom liquid surface (the effected emission reduction may reach 95%) (TERI 1993/01).

Emissions of particulates occur mainly with catalyst fines from catalyst regenerators {III-D-4}. Intypical installations, two or three stage cyclones are located in regenerator vessels of FCC unitsfor catalyst recovery. As a control measure, Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) are used in somerefineries to collect fine particles from regenerator exit gases. Particles are also emitted from thecoking process (TERI 1993/01).

Sources of CO include catalyst regenerators, coking operations, boilers and process heaters {III-D-3}. Catalyst regenerators in FCC units emit significant amounts of CO which can be burnt inCO boilers. Carbon monoxide emissions of furnaces are no problem because of the high amountof excess air (TERI 1993/01; IOC 1994/12).

5.3.2.3 Inventory for the EmissionsDue to the very few prescribed standards, measurements of air pollutants are rare. Data whenavailable is only from single measurements and it is unclear how far they give a representativepicture. Not all Indian refineries meet the air quality guidelines for the air pollutants SO2 andparticulate matter (IOC 1995; PETROTECH 1995).

Table 5.11 shows averages of emission values for some refineries in 1994 {III-D-1..4}. They arebased on single time stack measurements. Only for Haldia and Guwahati was there enough dataavailable to calculate a weighted mean. The table also shows the average emission values for aGerman refinery and the prescribed standards for gas and oil furnaces in Germany. The low val-ues for NOX and CO in the Indian refineries seem to be particularly unreliable. It is possible thatthe Indian values were not standardised to a certain oxygen content in the flue gases and werenot standardised on a temperature. This might be a reason for the great differences.

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Table 5.11: Average emission values from different stacks in 1994 for Indian refineries and the prescribed stan-dard. Emissions of a German refinery and the standards for gas and oil furnaces in German refiner-ies (mg/m³)

SO2 NOX PM COHaldia 3,470 131 271 2.8Guwahati 103 7.4 61 n.a.Barauni 440 49 219 n.a.Visag 759 526 381 n.a.Digboi 11 1.3 n.a. n.a.Gujarat 68 2.6 n.a. n.a.German refinery 75 260 4 16Indian Standard for refineries 1,200 - 150 -German standard for gas furnace 35 350 5 50German standard for oil furnace 1,700 450 50 175

n.a. - not available

Sources: HOLBORN 1995; IOC 1995; NEERI 1990/08, 1995

A comparison with the values given by ÖKO (1994/12) for boilers used in refineries also indi-cates recorded values are too low in the given emission data. They are shown in Table 5.12. Theemission of air pollutants for the LCI is again calculated with generic combustion devices forthe three fuels3. These combustion devices are assumed to have an eta (efficiency of combus-tion) of 1. The estimation considers the shown stack measurements, the Indian standards and thevalues given by ÖKO (1994/12). The data for the estimated combustion devices are also shownin Table 5.12 {III-D-1..5}. The emissions due to flaring are estimated with the same generic com-bustion device as for the petroleum exploitation.

Table 5.12: Emission values for calculations in TEMIS (ÖKO 1994/12) and estimates for the combustion devicesin Indian refineries (mg/Nm³)

NOX PM CO CH4 NMVOC N2OOil boiler 1,000 50 150 1 25 5Reduction 60% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%Emission 400 50 150 1 25 5Oil boiler (CIS) 500 150 250 0.50 50 0.50Reduction 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%Emission 500 150 250 0.50 50 0.50Fuel oil estimation 500 150 200 1 25 2Gas boiler 200 0.50 100 10 25 1Reduction 25% 0% 0% 0% 35% 35%Emission 150 0.50 100 10 16.25 0.65Gas boiler (CIS) 400 5 250 25 50 1Reduction 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%Emission 400 5 250 25 50 1Fuel gas estimation 300 4 150 15 30 1Coke boiler 400 10,000 250 0.50 25 25Reduction 0% 60% 70% 99.5% 0% 0%Emission 400 4,000 75 0 25 25Coke estimation 400 500 200 0.1 20 25

3The reason for this advance is described in chapter 4.2.2.7.

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The amount of emitted hydrocarbons is estimated by PETROTECH (1995) with 4 to 5 t/h for a6 Mtpa refinery (=158 kg/TJ). The data for emissions of hydrocarbons due to losses are shownin Table 5.13. The hydrocarbon emissions are calculated as the loss of the refinery (see 5.3.1)less the estimated flaring, the emissions of hydrocarbons with the wastewater and the dischargedwastes {III-D-5}. The emission of methane is estimated to be 1/11 of the total hydrocarbon emis-sions. The rest is assumed as NMVOC. This ratio was proposed in ÖKO (1994/12). The esti-mation for India differs from the values given by ÖKO (1994/12) for TEMIS.

Table 5.13: Emissions of hydrocarbons from refineries due to loss (CFHT 1995; ÖKO 1994/12; Own calcula-tion)

Estimation for the LCI (kg/TJ)

TEMIS (kg/TJ)

Total emission in India(thousand tonnes)

CH4 15 1 31.3NMVOC 148 10 313.0

5.3.3 Water Use and Discharge of EffluentsThe use of water in a refinery depends on the type of cooling system. In India refineries haveonce through or re-circulation systems. The two refineries in Madras and Visag(Vishakhapatnam) use sea water; other refineries use treated effluents or river water for cooling.The latter is more expensive because a fee must be paid for the water. Other requirements forwater comprise of steam generation, service water (cleaning, etc.), sanitary and fire water. Somerefineries recycle a part of the treated water for irrigation of gardens, agricultural land and greenbelts, for cooling and as firewater. The CBWP surveyed the water use {III-B-1} in 1982 andfound a median of 23 thousand tonnes per tonne of processed crude for once through coolingwater systems and 1,700 tonnes per tonne of processed crude for re-circulation cooling systems(ACHARYA/DAS 1995, CBWP 1982; NEERI 1995).

Table 5.14: Wastewater sources in a refinery (NEERI 1990/09)

Wastewater source Daily amount (m³/d)Oily waste stream 1,920Cooling tower 1,920Sanitary 720Sanitary town 240Mercaptan oxidation stream 2Total 4,702

The different wastewater sources in a refinery are shown in Table 5.14 {III-C-1}. The refineryeffluents typically contain oil, phenols, sulphides, cyanide, ammonium, dissolved and suspendedsolids that originate from process operations, storage-tank water-drainage, cooling tower blowdown and other sources4. Other liquid chemical wastes are mainly acidic and alkaline effluentsfrom petroleum product treatment units (MANNING/SNIDER 1983; TERI 1992/07).

The six refineries of the IOC have fully fledged effluent treatment plants (ETP) comprising ofphysical, chemical and biological treatment. Today all Indian refineries meet the MINAS stan-dard for effluents (PETROTECH 1995; IOC 1994/12a).

The calculated water balance for the Indian refineries is shown in Table 5.15. The water useincludes water for cooling, processes and sanitary use. The given value is the average of 12 re-

4A detailed list of wastwater sources from refinery unit processes is given by MANNING/SNIDER (1983).

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fineries {III-B-1}. The theoretical amount of discharged water is shown in the second row. Thistakes into consideration data about the water use and the capacity of the ETP. This value isused for the indicator effluents {III-C-1}. The last row shows the estimated quantity of effluentsdischarged after treatment containing the later investigated water pollutants. Neither coolingwater nor reused water are considered in this calculation. The value of effluent with pollutantsis used to calculate the amount of discharged water pollutants.

Table 5.15: Water balance for the Indian refineries (kg)

Total Number of dataWater use 4.38E+11 12Effluent and cooling water 4.10E+11 12Effluent with pollutants 2.19E+10 10

Sources: Own calculation with ACHARYA/DAS 1995; BPCL 1995; CBWP 1982; CPCB 1994/01; HPCL 1995/02;IOC 1995; NEERI 1990/09, 1991/04, 1995; PETROTECH 1995

The MINAS for refineries prescribes maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants in theeffluents. The standard is based on a wastewater generation of 700 litres per tonne of processedcrude oil (CBWP 1982). Table 5.16 shows the minimum, maximum and mean of the values forthe investigated refineries. The emission of water pollutants with the effluents was calculated asa weighted mean. In the first step the total emissions of the pollutants were calculated with con-sideration to the amount of effluent with pollutants. These values were added and the averageconcentration in the total discharged wastewater was calculated. This average concentration isused in the second step to calculate the product specific emissions for the LCI {III-C-2..7}.Onerefinery in Bombay did not meet the normal CPCB standard. The prescribed limits for this refin-ery are higher. This is the reason that the value for BOD is higher than the standard. The emis-sion of water pollutants is calculated with the mean values for the concentration and the valuefor discharged effluents with pollutants.

The table shows also the range of comparable values for refineries in Europe and the GUSfound by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995). The given value for the discharge of effluents is higherbecause it considers the additional discharges of cooling water. The found concentrations ofwater pollutants are smaller than the Indian values. The total emissions are of a comparable fig-ure if it is considered that the concentrations must be multiplied with the amount of effluents.

Table 5.16: Average concentration of water pollutants in the effluents of Indian refineries

Numberof data

Minimum Maximum Mean(used forthe LCI)

Indianstandard

Inter-national

Effluent (kg/TJ) 9 6,753 30,560 10,389 18,002 104,000

BOD (mg/l) 11 3.6 50 17 15 1-1.1COD (mg/l) 6 27 231 98 250 30-33TSS (mg/l) 9 8 30 17 20 1-10Phenol (mg/l) 10 nil 1.10 0.46 1.0 0.04-0.2Oil & Grease (mg/l) 11 0.7 20.4 9.6 10 0.25-0.6

Sources: Own calculation with ACHARYA/DAS 1995; BPCL 1995; CBWP 1982; CPCB 1994/01; CFHT 1995;HPCL 1995; IOC 1995; NEERI 1990/09, 1991/04, 1995; PETROTECH 1995; TEDDY 1994; Range ofdata for international refineries by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995 (Data for effluents include cooling water)

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5.3.4 Solid WastesThe different types of waste fractions from a refinery are given in Table 5.17. Solid wastes gen-erated during refinery operations consists mainly of oily sludge from storage tank bottoms or oilseparators and the chemical or biological sludge from ETP facilities. Tarry material is generatedduring acid refining of some products. Oily sludge is treated in melting pits for the recovery ofoil. Left over sediments and dry sludge are disposed off by land filling within the site of the re-finery. Chemical and biological sludge are disposed off by land filling after neutralisation ornatural degradation in drying beds. Land treatment and sludge farming techniques for more ef-ficient disposal of residual sludge are being experimented with certain refineries (PETROTECH1995; IOC 1994/12a; IOC 1995).

Table 5.17: Fractions of different sludge and wastes in a refinery (NEERI 1991/04)

Type of waste Tonnes per yearOily tank sludge 300Separator for ETP sludge 250Chemical sludge 400Hazardous waste 200Biological sludge 2,500Total 4,000

The average waste produced by a refinery can be estimated to be around 1,000 to 4,000 tonnesper year. The oil from this sludge is recovered and between 75 to 700 tonnes treated sludge isdisposed of per year5. The total amount of disposed waste is calculated to be 10,800 tonnes peryear for all the refineries in total {III-E-2}. This calculation takes into consideration available datafor 9 refineries (ACHARYA/DAS 1995; CBWP 1982;CPCB 1994/01; NEERI 1990/09, 1991/04,1995; IOC 1994/12A; IOC 1995).

5.3.5 Other Environmental ImpactsTo improve the environmental situation near the refinery, green belts or ecological parks are setup in the surroundings {III-F-2}. They are developed to serve the purpose of pollution sink andto improve the look of the surrounding area. The ecological park being developed surroundingthe treated effluent polishing point of the Mathura refinery covers 18,000 m² (IOC 1994/12a). Itis questionable how far these small parks can avoid the wider dispersion of pollutants emittedfrom the refinery. The Indian refineries on average operate for 24 hours a day, 345 days of theyear. The land use in the average refinery complex is approximately 470 ha. The area for thetotal project including green belts, marketing, pipeline installations and living areas is about 890ha {III-F-1} (IOC 1995).

5The refinery in Digboi disposed the produced wastes from the 1940s until 1982 inside their area. The amount ofthis dumping pit today is 30,000 tonnes (PETROTECH 1995).

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5.3.6 Allocation of the ImpactsWith regard to the life cycle inventory, the production of the following fuels (as described inchapter 3.2) in refineries is investigated:

• Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

• Kerosene (SKO)

• High speed diesel (HSD) and light diesel oil (LDO)

• Fuel Oil (HPS and LSHS)

• Fuel gas

• Coke

It was not possible to investigate the different production stages separately for all Indian refiner-ies. The entire process was taken as a black box and all indicators were investigated for thissystem. In a second step the investigated environmental loads for the indicators are allocated bygeneral allocation criteria. The possible allocation criteria are described in chapter 4.2.3.1.

Economic value of the products is not useful as an allocation criteria in India because prices donot reflect the true market value because the subsidy system. The allocation criteria lower heat-ing value would be the easiest way, but various authors have shown that this does not reflectthe existing differences regarding the production of the refinery products (FRISCHKNECHT 1994;FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995; ÖKO 1994/12; RØNNING 1994).

ÖKO (1994/12) deducted allocation coefficients to calculate the energy use for different refin-ery outputs. The average value for an indicator (e.g. energy use in the refinery) under a specificallocation criteria (e.g. LHV) is multiplied with the allocation coefficient to calculate the prod-uct specific use or emission for this indicator.

FRISCHKNECHT (1994) has shown that allocation coefficients are related to the types of refiner-ies, the composition of products and the investigated indicator. The specific energy use for aproduct depends also on the production unit. The direct production of LPG from crude oil, forexample, is less energy consuming than the secondary production in the FCC (IIP 1994/12).

Allocation coefficients are investigated by different authors and given in Table 5.18. The coeffi-cients investigated by ÖKO (1994/12) describe the situation in German, Swiss and US-American refineries. The comparison of LHV and mass in the second column indicates that thedifference between these two allocation criteria is small.

The last column of the table gives the estimates for the allocation of energy use and emissions ofair pollutants in the life cycle inventory. The estimation considers the shown investigated coeffi-cients and the refinery production in India. The allocation coefficient for the light distillates andheavy ends is estimated to be 1.5 and 1 respectively. The coefficient for middle distillates (HSD,SKO) is chosen in a way that the overall balance for the emissions of Indian refineries is met.Kerosene is treated in the same way as diesel oil because it is a similar product. In a first stepthe environmental load of the refinery is allocated to all products similarly by the lower heatingvalue. In a second step these burdens are multiplied by the allocation coefficients to consider thedifferences in the production. The emissions of water pollutants are allocated in a more specificway because they vary for every product and every indicator.

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Table 5.18: Allocation coefficients investigated for different allocation criteria, indicators and refinery productsand the estimation for the LCI

Indicator Energyuse

LHV Catalystuse

Thermalenergy

Electricityuse

Emissionsto water

Airpollutants

Energyuse

Energy use,air pollutants

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Allocationcriteria

LHV Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass LHV

Gas oil n.a. 1.01 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.0 - 1.2 n.a. n.a. 0.813Fuel oil 1.0 0.95 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.3 - 1.7 n.a. n.a. 1.0Petrol 2.0 1.02 2.1 2.0 1.5 0.9 - 1.2 n.a. n.a. 1.5Diesel oil 0.5 1.01 n.a. 0.5 0.5 0.9 - 1.2 0.4 - 0.58 0.42 0.813Kerosene n.a. 1.02 n.a. 0.5 0.5 0.6 - 1.1 n.a. n.a. 0.813Propane/Butane(LPG)

1.5 1.08 n.a. 1.5 1.5 0.9 - 1.2 n.a. n.a. 1.5

Fuel gas 1.0 1.14 n.a. 1.0 1.0 0.9 - 1.2 n.a. n.a. 1.0Coke n.a. 0.95 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.0

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Source: ÖKO1994/12

FRISCHKNECHT 1994FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995

RØNNING 1994 Estimation forthe LCI

The allocation for the water pollutants is more complicated. FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) in-vestigated detailed allocation coefficients for a list of water pollutants. These coefficients arecalculated for an allocation by mass. The values are multiplied for this study with the factor formass to LHV allocation as shown in Table 5.18. Table 5.19 shows the used values for a list ofwater pollutants. Other water pollutants, the water use, the discharge of effluents, wastes, theuse of land and materials are all calculated with a coefficient of 1. This follows the proposalsmade by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995).

Table 5.19: Allocation coefficients for the emissions of water pollutants (FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995)

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Allocation criteria LHV LHV LHV LHVFuel Oil (HPS) 0.5 0.3 1.8 0.3Petrol 1.1 1.2 0.9 1.2Diesel oil 1.2 1.1 0.9 1.2Kerosene 1.0 1.0 0.6 1.1Propane/ Butane (LPG) 1.0 1.1 0.8 1.1Fuel Gas 1.0 1.1 0.8 1.1Coke 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

5.3.7 Final Inventory for RefineriesTable 5.20 shows the final data of the LCI for refineries in India. The differences caused byusing different allocation coefficients (as described in chapter 5.3.6) are calculated. All investi-gated qualitative indicators are comprehended in this table. This data will be used for the furthercalculation of environmental impacts. The table gives also the data for international refineries tocalculate the impacts of imports. The data for the international refinery are multiplied for the usein TEMIS with the allocation coefficients, as given in Table 5.18 and Table 5.19, to consider theforeign production of LPG and kerosene. The last column of the table gives a comparison withthe values for the production of LPG in European refineries as investigated by FRISCHKNECHT

ET AL. (1995). All the information in the previous sections concerning quantitative indicators isrelated to the products quantified in MJ (TJ). Eta describes the percentage output of through-put. Fuels used in the refinery are calculated first as products. The mass of steel and cement iscalculated with data given by ÖKO (1994/12).

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The data for the international refinery are estimated, using the data of FRISCHKNECHT ET AL.(1995), ÖKO (1994/12) and BUWAL (1995). Again big differences between the Indian and theinternational refineries are avoided to hinder a bias in the analysis for LPG and kerosene.GEMIS 2.0 gives an eta of 95% for the OPEC refineries in comparison to 99.5% of Germanrefineries. The energy use of the OPEC refineries is given a value of only 2%. Thus the overallenergy efficiency is nearly the same. BUWAL found 9.35% for the energy use in refineries. Thereason for the high energy use in comparison to the Indian refineries might be higher complexityof the plants. FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. found a value of 4.8% for the production of LPG. The en-ergy use for the international refinery delivered by fuel gas and fuel oil combustion is estimatedto be about 5%.

BUWAL gives the hydrocarbon emissions at 163 kg/TJ. This is within the range of values foundfor India (165 kg/TJ) and much more than investigated by ÖKO (11 kg/TJ) and FRISCHKNECHT

ET AL. (10 kg/TJ). The additional emissions of sulphur found for Europe are in the range of theIndian values (7 kg/TJ).

The amount of used water investigated by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (90 kg/TJ) is smaller than thevalue found for India (207 kg/TJ). A possible reason is the different use of cooling water in therefineries. The value for the effluents in Europe (90 t/TJ) lies between the Indian values for totalwater discharge and the discharge of polluted effluents (194 t/TJ and 10 t/TJ). The value for oilinvestigated by BUWAL is much higher (3.9 kg/TJ) than the Indian value (0.07 kg/TJ). Thevalues of the BUWAL study are taken from different sources and it was not possible to evaluatethis data. Values for water pollutants were also investigated by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. for refin-eries which deliver their products to Europe. The values for BOD and TSS are on the samelevel. The values for COD, oil & grease and phenol are higher than the values found for India.The production of waste is calculated by BUWAL and FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. with higher valuesthan in this study (37 kg/TJ and 18 kg/TJ). But the Indian value of 5.1 kg/TJ seems to be reli-able because adequate information was available.

The values found for the energy use and the emissions of water pollutants in the Indian refiner-ies appear relatively reliable. Uncertainties exist about the true emission data for combustiondevices and the discharged amount of effluents. Further research work is necessary for the in-vestigation of unspecified emissions of hydrocarbons from the refineries. More informationneeds to be collected in future studies about the imports of petroleum products to India and theaccurate data for the international refineries concerned.

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Table 5.20: Refinery data in India for the TEMIS calculations, data for an international refinery and a compari-son with values for an European refinery producing LPG

Unit Indian refineries International EuropeAllocation coefficient (0.813) (1) (1.5) (1) LPGCapacity MW 5,907 5,907 5,907 1,000 1,000eta (products/crude) 99.06% 99.06% 99.06% 99.00% -

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Electricity use MJ/MJ 1.71E-04 2.10E-04 3.15E-04 - 4.64E-03Fuel gas use MJ/MJ 0.01198 0.0147 0.02210 0.015 6.83E-03Fuel oil use MJ/MJ 0.0260 0.0320 0.0481 0.035 0.0365Coke use MJ/MJ 0.00402 0.0049 0.00742 - -Flaring MJ/MJ 0.0023 0.0029 0.0043 - -Total auxiliary energy MJ/MJ 0.0445 0.0548 0.0822 0.05 0.0483CH4 kg/TJ 12 15 22 15 1NMVOC kg/TJ 120 148 222 150 8SO2 kg/TJ 5.5 6.7 10.1 6 12

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Water use g/MJ 207 207 207 150 90Effluent discharge kg/TJ 1.94E+05 1.94E+05 1.94E+05 1.90E+05 9.0E+04BOD kg/TJ 0.172# 0.172 0.172† 0.14 0.1COD kg/TJ 1.02# 1.02 1.12† 1.2 3.3TSS kg/TJ 0.231 0.231 0.231 0.2 0.1Phenol kg/TJ 0.00197# 0.00326 0.00261† 0.005 0.016Oil & grease kg/TJ 0.081# 0.0733 0.081† 0.3 0.3

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Waste kg/TJ 4.17 5.12 7.69 15.0 18Load h/a 8,280 8,280 8,280 8,280 8,280Life time a 20 20 20 20 20Land use m² 8.22E+06 8.22E+06 8.22E+06 2.0E+06 7.3E+07Steel g 2.07E+11 2.07E+11 2.07E+11 5.0E+10 5.5E+10Cement g 5.91E+10 5.91E+10 5.91E+10 1.0E+10 1.2E+10Sources: Own calculation for India with ACHARYA/DAS 1995; BPCL 1995; CBWP 1982;CPCB 1994/01; CFHT

1995; HPCL 1995; IOC 1994/12A, 1995; NEERI 1990/09, 1991/04, 1995; PETROTECH 1995;TEDDY 1994, estimation for an international refinery with ÖKO 1994/12, BUWAL 1995,FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995 and the Indian values and comparison with the data investigated byFRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995 for the production of LPG in Europe

#,† - Calculation with allocation coefficients as given in Table 5.19 for kerosene (#) and LPG (†)

5.4 Production of LPG in Indian Fractionating Plants for Natural GasLPG also arises in the extraction of natural gas (approximately 3% of the quantity of naturalgas) in fractionating plants (UBA 1992). The gas processing stages in these plants can be classi-fied into two main groups. The process scheme for the fractionating plant in Hazira is shown inFigure 5.2. The first is the conditioning of gas. Different contaminants are removed from thegas. In the second stage the valuable products are extracted from the gas. The possible productsare liquefied ethane/propane mixture (C2/C3), propane, LPG, natural gasoline, liquefied naturalgas (NGL) and sulphur. The gaseous residual after all stages of extraction, the fuel gas or leannatural gas (LNG), can also be used as a fuel (TIWARI 1995).

Due to the contaminants H2S, CO2, water and liquid hydrocarbons, the natural gas cannot beused immediately. In the first conditioning stage, the sweetening, the gaseous contaminants H2Sand CO2 are removed by passing the gas through an absorber. The solutions used for the ab-sorber are mostly regenerative. At the plant in Hazira, 48 tonnes of sulphur are produced peryear. The second is the removal of water vapour from the natural gas. The dehydration of gas ismainly carried out by means of liquid and solid desiccants such as triethylene glycol (TEG), acti-

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vated alumna, molecular sieves, etc. These desiccants are of a regenerative type. In the last step,liquid hydrocarbons are removed by passing the gas through a gas-liquid separator (TIWARI

1995).

Figure 5.2: Overall process flow chart for Hazira gas terminal (BATRA 1995)

The extraction of valuable products is effected by the cryogenic process or the lean oil extrac-tion process. In India the cryogenic process is widely used because it is economically attractiveand environmentally friendly. In this process the sweet natural gas is chilled using either a re-frigeration system, turbo expander process or a combination of both. With the help of externalrefrigeration, the gas is cooled down to minus 40°C. The condensed hydrocarbons are separatedin separators and fractionated in fractionating columns to obtain the desired valuable products.LPG and NGL are recovered in the first unit. C2/C3 is recovered in the following unit (TIWARI

1995). The share of the different products can be regulated according to demand. Cooling wateris normally held in closed systems. Specific effluents are produced only in small amounts fromdehydrogenation {IV-C-1}. For these effluents, the same standards are prescribed as for refineries(PETROTECH 1995; SHAMSUNDAR 1995).

5.4.1 Energy DemandData about the energy use of gas processing plants {IV-A-2} was available for the plants of theONGC in Hazira and Uran and for the OIL facilities in Duliajan (Table 5.21). Complete datawas not available, and for the plant in Uran semi-contradictory information was given. Thismade it necessary to estimate the possible values.

The demand for energy results mainly from the cooling processes. The demand is met by a co-generator that produces electricity and steam. This generator uses fuel gas {IV-A-2}. To avoidproblems in case of shut downs, provisions is made for flaring of surplus natural gas. For safetyreasons, it is necessary that a small flaring fire is fed at all times. In case of difficulties in thedownstream sector, the surplus natural gas can be burnt by means of it (PETROTECH 1995;SHAMSUNDAR 1995).

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Table 5.21: Gas processing plants for the fractionating of natural gas in India (OIL 1995; NEERI 1995;PETROTECH 1995)

Unit Uran, ONGC Hazira, ONGC Duliajan, OILeta 99.89% 88.84% 99.90%Natural gas throughput m³/a 4.40E+09 6.97E+09 6.66E+08Natural gas throughput MJ/a 1.81E+11 2.86E+11 2.73E+10LPG production MJ/a 2.49E+10 1.95E+10 2.28E+09LPG percentage 14.58% 7.19% 8.82%C2/C3 production MJ/a 2.06E+10 n.a. n.a.NGL production MJ/a 1.27E+10 4.90E+10 -LNG production MJ/a 1.16E+11 1.86E+11 2.41E+10Condensate production MJ/a 6.44E+09 n.a. 9.75E+08Products total MJ/a 1.80E+11 2.54E+11 2.73E+10Flaring m³/a 4.42E+06 n.a. n.a.Flaring MJ/MJ 1.01E-03 n.a. n.a.Auxiliary energy LNG m³/a 1.02E+08 1.16E+08 1.22E+07Auxiliary energy LNG MJ 3.71E+09 4.21E+09 5.02E+08Amount of auxiliary energy MJ/MJ 2.06E-02 1.66E-02 1.84E-02Capacity MW 6,139 8,649 940Working days d 340 340 337Load h/a 8,160 8,160 8,076

5.4.2 Emission of Air PollutantsThe measurements of total emissions from stacks in the processing unit in Hazira are shown inTable 5.22 {IV-D-1..4}. The estimated values of the gas combustion for co-generation are shownin Table 5.22. The ratio of emissions of different pollutants as given and information about gascombustion and their estimates as described in chapter 4.2.2.7 were used for the estimates.

Table 5.22: Emission of air pollutants at the gas processing unit in Hazira from 8 to 10 stacks in 1992/93 andestimates for LNG combustion in the LCI (PETROTECH 1995)

Minimum(kg/h)

Maximum(kg/h)

Gas combustion(mg/Nm³)

SO2 3 61 -NOX 3 700 250PM 5 300 100CO 0,5 250 90HC 3 130 CH4: 15

NMVOC: 30

5.4.3 Final Inventory for Fractionating PlantsThe life cycle inventory is shown in Table 5.23. The estimation takes into account the data de-scribed above. Information about the energy intensity to produce different types of gases wasnot available. The environmental impacts are allocated by the lower heating value of the prod-ucts, because this is the easiest method of calculations according to TEMIS. The emission of airpollutants due to flaring is calculated with the same generic device as described in the chapter 4{IV-D-1..5}. The use of water and the discharge of effluents is ignored because volumes appearto be very small in comparison to the refineries and other sources during the life cycle {IV-C-1..7}.

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Table 5.23: Estimates for an Indian gas processing plant in the life cycle inventory

Unit Estimation

eta 99.90%Capacity MW 7,000Flaring MJ/MJ 0.0010Auxiliary energy LNG MJ/MJ 0.0185Load h/a 8,132Life time a 20Land use m² 1,200,000Steel t 160,000Cement t 80,000

5.5 Life Cycle Inventory for Indian LPG Bottling PlantsAn installation for LPG bottling normally consists of the following basic facilities:

• Storage tanks for bulk LPG and filling facilities

• LPG cylinder storage and filling facilities

• Process units

• Utilities and effluent disposal

The operations for the LPG bottling are as follows:

• Receipt of LPG cylinders and of LPG delivered in bulk

• Storage of the bulk LPG in tanks

• Cleaning and inspection of the cylinders

• Filling of LPG cylinders

• Handling & storage of LPG cylinders

• Auxiliary operations

LPG in bulk is transported and delivered in rail tank wagons with 5, 10, 12, 13, 15 or 37 toncapacity and in road tank trucks with a 6 to 18 ton capacity. Tank trucks and wagons should beunloaded by differential pressure method using an LPG compressor. Following this LPG vapourcan be recovered so that the vapour pressure in the tank truck is reduced to 14,700 hPa mini-mum (GOI 1994/04).

The delivered LPG is pumped at the plant into stores. LPG in liquid and vapour form is storedunder pressure in tanks known as pressure vessels. The storage vessels should be drained tocatch the water content of the LPG. The cylinders should be received in capped condition (GOI1994/04).

Before the filling, the cylinders are inspected, the surface is cleaned, the remaining air is evapo-rated and the tare weight is controlled. The cylinders are tested for leaks. To ensure that thereare no leaks, the compact valve tester should be calibrated to detect leakage beyond 0.5 g/h. Anaverage of 0.2% of the cylinders is found to be defect. If cylinders have a defective valve theyshould be emptied of LPG up to a pressure of 14,700 hPa. The evacuated LPG is pumped backinto a tank. Thereafter the cylinder is de-pressurised by cold flare. This means that the remain-

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ing LPG is emitted into the atmosphere by means of a vent outside the shed. With 10 trips peryear a life span of 15 to 20 years can be assumed for the cylinders and valves (GOI 1994/04;LPG-ORDER 1995; OCC 1995).

In big plants, the cylinders are filled and weighed on a production line. In small plants this workis done manually with a filling gun. All cylinders should be filled on a gross weight basis on thefilling machine. The filled cylinders are stored under cover. Normally there is a big safety areaaround the installations to minimise the risk for the environment. To serve the demand of usersfor the cylinders an average of 1.5 cylinders per user are needed. Due to an overproducing ca-pacity for cylinders, it is possible to give spare cylinders to the users so that there is no shortageif one cylinder is empty (OCC 1995; TERI 1989/3).

The cylinders for the subsidised LPG are standardised. The common cylinders have a capacity of33.3 litres +/- 5 litres for 14.2 kg of LPG. Their tare weight is 16.5 kg {V-B-2}. Additional tothis, cylinders with a capacity of 4, 5, 11.2, 19, 47.5 or 50 kg are permitted. There was a pro-posal to use 5 kg cylinders for hill areas or for users who cannot spend so much money at onetime. Private entrepreneurs who sell LPG on the free market must shape their cylinders, so thatno interchange is possible with the government products. Small cylinders that can be bought onthe market do not take a big share of the LPG market (ARORA 1994; LPG-ORDER 1988).

The aggregate estimated data for all the Indian bottling plants and the specific data for one plantof OIL are shown in Table 5.24. Energy is needed to run gas compressors and auxiliary equip-ment. The energy needed for bottling plants lies in the range of 18 to 34 kWh electricity pertonne LPG {V-A-4}. In case of power cuts, the plants have auxiliary diesel generators. The es-timation considers three pieces of information concerning the energy use and the data for theplant of OIL.

The water comes from a tube well and its use for cleaning can be estimated to be around 1,000litres per tonne of LPG {V-B-1}. The quantity of discharged effluents is low. Thus the emissionof water pollutants from these effluents is not considered {V-D-1..7}. The land use for a smallplant is about 50,000 m² with a green belt of 30 m {V-F-1}. For large plants, comparable valuesare 500,000 m² and 80 m (BHARAT PETROLEUM 1995; OCC 1995; PETROTECH 1995). Theland use values found seem to be very high. The total land use for 83 bottling plants is estimatedto be 6 million square metres. This is equal to a square area with a perimeter length of 270 me-tres per plant.

During all stages of the LPG life cycle gas is emitted when connections or disconnections aremade between pipes, stores, cylinders, etc.. The losses should be less than 0.1% at the bottlingplants and less than 0.5% for the transportation activities. From production or importation tothe delivery into the household the actual total loss amounts to 0.3% or 66.5 kg/TJ {V-D-5}. Thetotal emissions of NMVOC are taken into account in the bottling stage (OCC 1995). The use ofsteel for cylinders is included in the material data of the bottling plant {V-B-2}. The economiclife of cylinders and the plant installations is given by BHANDARI/THUKRAL (1994) with 20years.

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Table 5.24: Aggregated average data for all Indian bottling plants and specific data for one plant in Duliajan

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Unit Duliajan, OIL Estimation for the LCIAA AA

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eta 99.90% 99.70%

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LPG throughput kg/a 5.04E+07 2.87E+09

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LPG throughput MJ/a 2.28E+09 1.30E+11

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LPG cylinder output kg/a 2.00E+07 -

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LPG output MJ/a 9.03E+08 1.30E+11

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LPG output in bulk kg/a 3.04E+07 -

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LPG output in bulk MJ/a 1.38E+09 -AAAAAAAA

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LPG output total MJ 2.28E+09 1.30E+11

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LPG used kg/a 1.42E+01 -

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LPG used MJ/a 6.42E+02 -

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Electricity use kWh 6.80E+05 7.26E+07AA AA

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Auxiliary electric energy MJ/MJ 2.71E-03 2.01E-03AA AA

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NMVOC kg/a 4.82E+04 8.62E+06

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NMVOC kg/TJ 21.2 66.5AA AA

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Water use g/MJ - 7.72E-09

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Effluent kg/TJ - 7.72E-06AA AA

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Capacity MW 299 10,434

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Working days d 212 345

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Load h/a 2,117 3,450

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Life time a 20 20

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Land use m² - 6,000,000

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Steel (incl. cylinder) t - 340,000

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Cement t - 10,000

Sources: Own calculation with BHARAT PETROLEUM 1995; OCC 1995; PETROTECH 1995

Different industrial practices, plus inadequate measures taken in response to accidents6 haveemphasised the need for the industry to review the existing state of regulation concerning de-sign, operation and maintenance of oil and gas installations {V-G-6}. Operation rules regulate forexample sprinkler arrangement, leak detecting and safety distance (ARORA 1994; GOI 1994/04).

5.6 Rapid Life Cycle Inventory for the Electricity Generation in North IndiaThis chapter investigates the power generation in North India7. A more detailed investigationwill be made by LAUTERBACH (n.d.). This assessment however was not yet available for use inthis report. Thus it was necessary to estimate the power generation with draft data. The inven-tory is based only on limited data given by TEDDY (1994). The environmental impacts are cal-culated with information given by ÖKO (1994/12) and BUWAL (1991) based on the Europeansituation.

Table 5.25 shows the estimated data for open-cast and underground mining in India. Data forthe share for the two types of mining and the electricity use are based on information in TEDDY(1994). The waste generation was investigated by BUWAL. All other data are given in ÖKO(1994/12).

6There was for example one accident in bottling plant near Delhi when LPG had caught fire. But there was noloss of life nor damage of bulk tanks (ARORA 1994)

7North India: Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh

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Table 5.25: Data for hardcoal extraction in India

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Unit Open-castmining

Underground mining

AA

AA

AA

AAAA

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AAAA

Share 69.5% 30.5%

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AAAAA

AAAAA

Capacity MW 1,500 1,500

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

Auxiliary energy electricity MJ/MJ 0.00138 0.00415

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

Cuttings kg/TJ 1.46E+04 5.27E+04

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

Methane kg/TJ 112 500

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

Load h/a 7,900 7,900AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

Life time a 25 25

AAAAA

AAAAA

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Land use m² 1.00E+06 1.00E+06

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

Steel t 100,000 100,000

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

Cement t 20,000 20,000

Sources: BUWAL 1991; ÖKO 1994/12 and TEDDY 1994

Table 5.26 shows the LCI for the power generation in North India. The 1.8% produced by nu-clear power plants is neglected in this draft LCI. Electricity is only a small share of the total en-ergy use. So any error due to the exclusion seems likely to be negligible. Data about the effi-ciency of coal power plants can be found in TEDDY (1994).

The emissions of the combustion devices are estimated to be within the range of values given byÖKO (1994/12) under consideration of the Indian standard for particulate matter from coalpower plants. The standard prescribes for new plants (since 1979) a limit of 150 mg/Nm³. Oldplants in non-protected areas can have emissions of 600 mg/Nm³. The transmission and distri-bution losses in the Indian electricity grid are very high at 22.8%. The losses are assumed to bethis quantity for the LCI. It is possible that the true losses for large scale consumers will belower because not so many transformation stages are necessary and the amount of pilferage andun-metered supply is lower.

Table 5.26: Data for power generation in North India

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Unit Coal Gas HydroA A

AAAA

AAAA

Share 59.9% 7.8% 30.5%

AAAAA

AAAAA

Capacity MW 500 300 50AAAA

AAAA

eta 28.2% 34.0% 100%

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NOX mg/Nm³ 1,000 350 0

AAAAA

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PM mg/Nm³ 200 5 0

AAAA

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CO mg/Nm³ 200 200 0

AAAAA

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Methane mg/Nm³ 10 10 0

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NMVOC mg/Nm³ 50 50 0

AAAAA

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N2O mg/Nm³ 1 1 0

AAAA

AAAA

Load h/a 7,900 7,900 6,000

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Life time a 20 20 50

AAAAA

AAAAA

Land use m² 10,000 10,000 10,000

AAAA

AAAA

Steel t 60,000 40,000 20,000

AAAAA

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Cement t 30,000 2,000 100,000

Sources: BUWAL 1991; ÖKO 1994/12 and TEDDY 1994

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This chapter contains the life cycle inventory for the distribution of LPG and kerosene in India.The existing network is explained and the data used in TEMIS are investigated.

6.1 Marketing of LPG in IndiaIn India LPG is a short supply product and for this reason the growth in consumption is de-pendent on the availability. India consumed 3.1 million tonnes of LPG in 1993/94. The domesticsector used 90%, the commercial sector 7% and industry 3%. Due to the scarcity of the fuelnon-residential use is restricted on technical essentially. For the next year consumption of 3.4million tonnes LPG is estimated (MODAK 1995; OCC 1995).

LPG is obtainable on the parallel market and through the public distribution system (PDS). Thepublic distribution of the cylinders is managed by an agent of the oil company. At present, LPGis distributed by retailers of the marketing divisions of the IOC (Indian Oil Corporation), BPCL(Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd), HPLC (Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd) under thebrand names INDANE, BHARAT GAS and HP GAS respectively (TERI 1989/03; WSC1994:84).

LPG and other petroleum products have been de-canalised and parallel marketing was intro-duced in 1993. Sales by private entrepreneurs at market determined prices should augment thedomestic supply of the products. So far 80 parties have declared their intention to operate in thismarket. Today only a small amount is sold on the free market, but the amount should increase inthe future (TERI 1989/03; WSC 1994:84).

Today LPG is supplied only to towns above 20,000 population and on an exceptional basis tosmaller towns. Presently 27% of the urban population and barely 1% of the rural people haveaccess to LPG. There are 21 million families, with an average of 5.3 persons, that use LPG. ButLPG is not the only cooking fuel for all of them (ARORA 1994; HINDUSTAN TIMES 1994;MODAK 1995; OCC 1995).

In India the production can not meet the demand for this fuel. There are still 11 million con-sumers on a waiting list. The waiting list time for a new booking of LPG in 1994 can be asmuch as 3, 4 or more years. During the year 1994/95 two million new LPG connections and anequal number of double barrel connections were released. On the 1 April 1994 there were4,292 LPG distributors in the country. The current marketing plan envisages the set up of 623new LPG distributorships (ARORA 1994; HINDUSTAN TIMES 1994; WSC 1994:84).

In December 1994, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas decided that towns with popula-tions of less than 20,000 and adjoining villages will also be considered for new LPG distribution.The start of a distribution network for rural areas should take place within two years. In the fu-ture it is planned to meet the demands of Bombay with a grid of gas pipes. This grid is planed toconnect both commercial users and over 600,000 households. This project is a joint venturewith British Gas (HINDUSTAN TIMES 1994; ARORA 1994; TERI 1989/03).

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6.2 Inventory for the Distribution of LPGFull cylinders are brought by trucks from the bottling plant to the godown (warehouse) of theretailer. The same truck takes the empty bottles back for filling. In the godown the cylinders arestored. The LPG cylinders are delivered1 by the retailer to the house of the customer in ex-change for an empty cylinder. The retailers of the PDS give a rebate of 1 Rs for self service.

In the end of 1994 the price for a full cylinder was 93.07 Rs {VI-H-1}. The retail price for thecylinder itself was 500 Rs. Due to the scarcity of LPG one is not allowed to use the fuel forother purposes, only for cooking and those purposes stated by an order of the central govern-ment. The average number of LPG cylinder refills required per household per annum rangesfrom 7 in smaller cities to 12 in the big cities (BHANDARI/THUKRAL 1994; TERI 1989/03).

Table 6.1 shows data for an agent and godown in New Delhi. The office of the agent and thegodown for storing the LPG cylinders are located at different places. The stock and the price forLPG have to be displayed by the distributor. At the time of the visit 43 of 603 cylinders werereported defect. The shown data are used for the calculation in TEMIS. For this purpose the last3 rows are estimated {VI-B-2, B-3, F-1}.

Table 6.1: Data for an godown in New Delhi that distributes LPG

Customers 8,000Sold cylinder per year approximately 63,000Capacity 1.31 MWStored cylinders 603Defect cylinders 43Delivery within a radius of 3 kmPrice 0.1449 Rs/MJLand use 1,000 m²Life time 20 aCement 5,000 kgLoad 3,000 h/a

6.3 Marketing of Kerosene in IndiaKerosene is sold through the public distribution system (PDS) in fair price shops. In theseshops the kerosene is sold at a fixed, highly subsidised price. On a ration card everyone in Indiagets 2 litres per months {VI-H-2}. The PDS is approved by the central or state government. Ason 1.4.1994 there were 6,053 SKO/LDO dealers in the country. The marketing plan envisagesthe setting up of 202 new retail outlets (IOC 1994/12; WSN 1994:84).

Recently the Ministry for Petroleum and Natural Gas has allowed the import and marketing ofkerosene by private parties. This scheme of Parallel Marketing shall ensure increased availabilityof the product in the country. The dealer sells the kerosene on the free market at a floatingprice. So far 51 parties have entered into agreement with oil companies for import or storage ofkerosene {VI-H-3, 4} (WSN 1994:84).

Table 6.2 shows the selling prices for kerosene in different cities for PDS and parallel marketing{IV-H-1}. Data for Dhanawas was not available. The State price for kerosene lies between 2.25and 4 Rs/l. The price on the parallel private market lies between 4 and 6.50 Rs/l. The price onthe world market is $200 per tonne or 5.20 Rs/l (OCC 1995).

1The cylinders are transported with a bike or a three-wheeler. Transportation by bike, still seen quite often, is notallowed by the Petroleum Act of 1934. According to this act, the cylinders must be transported in an uprightposition (LPG-ORDER 1988).

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The average price for fair price shops and free marketing is estimated to be 0.0656 Rs/MJ and0.14 Rs/MJ respectively. Due to the high subsidy on kerosene it is very attractive to use it foradulteration with other products like HSD. Some sources assume that thus 15% of the SKO arediverted away from the target consumer categories (TERI 1989/03). In contrast to the keroseneto be imported, sold or distributed under parallel marketing system, PDS supplied kerosene isdyed blue. This is to avoid it being used for purposes other than it was proposed (SKO-ORDER

1993; WSN 1994:84).

Table 6.2: Costs of kerosene in different cities for both types of retailers

City Type of retailer Rs/l Rs/MJVododara Fair price shop 2.25 0.0656Rishikesh Fair price shop 4.00 0.1167Wardha Free market 4.00 0.1167Delhi Fair price shop 2.00 0.0583Delhi Free market 6.00 0.1750

6.4 Inventory for the Distribution of KeroseneKerosene is transported with tank trucks from the refinery to the wholesaler. Alternatively it istransported in 18.5 litre tins. The wholesalers sell the kerosene to both types of retailers and de-liver it by road tank trucks. Figure 6.1 shows a picture of a kerosene retailer in New Delhi. Afair price shop in New Delhi can be described as follows. It covers an area of 25 m². Normally atruck delivers 2,500 litres of kerosene to one retailer. The kerosene is brought from a whole-saler in New Delhi. It is refilled into 8 to 11 oil barrels standing in the open sky or under cover.One barrel contains 220 litres. If a barrel is not filled totally, the amount of kerosene is measuredwith a meter stick. To avoid spillage a pail is put under the outlet. The kerosene flows freelyfrom the tank truck into the barrels. One of these barrels has no top. With a little pail and a fun-nel the kerosene is refilled into the containers brought by the customers.

The shop sells about 400 to 500 litres a day. This sums up to 150 tonnes per year. It can be sus-pected that due to evaporation and spillage hydrocarbons are emitted {VI-C-7, D-5, G-1}. In thecost break down for SKO the calculated cost due to leakage is 20% of the total cost borne.UBA (1993) estimates total retail losses of diesel of 0.175%. For this calculation the loss duringwholesaling and retailing is estimated to be 0.1% and 0.5% respectively (TERI 1989/3). Table6.3 shows the estimation for a wholesaler and a retailer of kerosene that is used for the calcula-tion with TEMIS. The estimation considers the shop described above.

Table 6.3: Data for wholesaling and retailing of kerosene in India

AAAAA

Wholesaler RetailerA

AAAAA

Capacity 1,000 MW 460 kW

AAAA

Load 3,000 h/a 3,000 h/a

AAAAA

Life time 15 a 10 a

AAAA

NMVOC 23 kg/TJ 117 kg/TJ

AAAAA

Land use 100,000 m² 25 m²AAAA

Cement 100 t 1,000 kg

AAAAA

Steel 500 t 200 kg

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Figure 6.1: Photo of a retail shop for kerosene in New Delhi

6.5 Scenario for the Dhanawas RegionThe life cycle inventory is be comparable to the study by LAUTERBACH (n.d.). Thus the scenariofor the distribution is investigated for the little village of Dhanawas. In the little villages of thisregion LPG is not available and it is forbidden to use it there. Nevertheless people get it illegallywith the help of inhabitants from the district headquarters Gurgaon. The final 15 km distancethey transport it themselves. There are 5 to 10 suppliers and the next bottling plant in Ghaziabadis 45 km away (BRADNOCK 1994, SINHA 1995).

Faroukhnagar is the nearest place for the villagers of Dhanawas to buy kerosene, it is 7 kilome-tres away. In the block headquarters are both types of retailers. The monthly amount of kero-sene on ration card is 5 litres (SINHA 1995).

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This chapter deals with the life cycle inventory of cooking, including the environmental, socialand economic impacts. Kerosene and LPG cookstoves are described. The requirements of usefulenergy are deducted for the calculations with TEMIS. The situation for the cooking in Dha-nawas is described.

7.1 Cookstoves for the Use with KeroseneFor the use with Kerosene, different types of cookstoves are marketed in India. They can bebroadly classified as being of the ”pressurised” or the ”wick” type. The efficiency of old pres-surised stoves ranges from 50% to 55%. Old wick stoves have an efficiency of 35% to 47% (IIP1994/12; TERI 1989/03). Figure 7.1 shows a picture of a cookstove retailer in New Delhi. Thecookstoves in the foreground are of the offset burner type, the most common types. The lessfrequently sold wick stoves can be seen packed on the right side.

Figure 7.1: Photo of a cookstove distributor in New Delhi with pressurised cookstoves in the foreground andpacked wick stoves on the right hand side

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Most of the kerosene stoves on the market are pressurised. In the early pressurised stoves, thefuel tank was directly below the burner. The new offset burner stove is safer because the fueltank is not directly attached to the burner. The specifications for Indian pressurised stoves canbe found in the Indian standards 10109-1981 and 1342-1986 (ISI 1982/05, 1986/05).

Figure 7.2 shows a typical pressurised cookstove of the offset burner type. The kerosene isdelivered to the burner by an over-pressure in the fuel tank. The pressure is built up by a manualair pump. The fuel evaporates through an injector and is mixed with ambient air. This mixture isburnt and the form of the flame is determined by the design of the burner. Some of the heat isused to warm up the incoming kerosene. It is necessary to preheat the burner in the beginningphase of cooking. A little bit of kerosene or sprit is burnt in the spirit cup under the burner. Thepower of the stove is regulated with a valve in the fuel pipe or by the pressure in the fuel tank.The flame is extinguished by closing the valve or by reducing the pressure on the fuel tank.Normally pressurised cookstoves work quite loudly {VII-F-3} (LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER 1995).

Figure 7.2: Typical oil pressure stove of the offset burner type (ISI 1982/05)

The pressurised cookstoves are obtainable in different sizes and qualities on the Indian market.The prices range from Rs 70 up to Rs 125 and Rs 415 for big, ”professional” stoves. They areavailable with one or two burners. The capacity of the fuel tanks ranges from 0.9 to 3.6 litres.The stoves are made mainly from steel sheets and brass rods. Nowadays the Indian standardprescribes a thermal efficiency for the stoves between 55 and 58 per cent. Most of the custom-ers prefer the pressurised stoves because of the lower prices, the variety in shapes and the higherheat {VII-H-1, G-4}. The economic operating life time of kerosene stoves is assumed by TERI tobe ten years (ISI 1982/05, 1986/05; TERI 1989/03).

The IIP (Indian Institute of Petroleum in Dehradun) has worked on an improved SKO pressurestove with an efficiency of 64%. At first, the kerosene is preheated by a kerosene soaked asbes-tos sponge. Once the stove works, the kerosene is preheated by the cooking flame. Due to thepreheating emissions of some air pollutants and production of noise in the starting phase areprobably higher {VII-F-3} (IIP 1994/12).

Specifications for the wick stove, also known as non-pressure stove, are given in the Indianstandard 2980-1979. There are gravity-fed and capillary-fed types on the market. The principle

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of a capillary-fed wick stove is shown in Figure 7.3. A ring of wicks is set up over the fuel tank.They are fixed in a construction that makes it possible to adjust their height with a wick winderknob or a handle. The burning room consists of two perforated sleeves. The kerosene from thefuel tank is carried up by capillary power and evaporates at the surface of the wicks into theroom between the two sleeves. The fuel is burnt with the ambient air that reaches the burningchamber through the holes in the sleeves. An outer burner casing is around the two perforatedsleeves. It serves as an isolation and a shield against wind (IOC n.d.; ISI 1979/11; LAU-

TERBACH/SCHNAITER 1995).

Figure 7.3: Functional principle of a capillary-fed wick stove (ISI 1979/11)

The space between the burner casing and the outer sleeve is warmed by the lighting of thewicks. The incoming ambient air is preheated while flowing through the room. The fuel-airmixture burns first at the perforation of the sleeves. With the continued preheating the blueflame burns also above the edge of the perforated sleeves. The power of the stove is regulatedby the adjustable free length of the wicks. A maximum uniformly blue flame shall be obtained.The flame is put out with a metal sheet ring or by reducing the length of the wicks with thecontrol lever (IOC n.d.; ISI 1979/11; LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER 1995).

New improved wick stoves were designed by the IIP. One is the Mini-Nutan1 with an efficiencyof 58%. This price (Rs 50) is low enough to make it affordable for low income classes. TheMini-Nutan has a weight of 1.3 kg. The other type is the normal (bigger) Nutan for Rs 135 withan efficiency of over 60%. The two improved types have been produced since 1978. Thirteenfirms have produced over 130 thousand pieces under licence of this institute {VII-H-4} (IIP1994/12).

1Nutan is a Hindi word meaning "new".

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Figure 7.4 shows a photo of a Nutan stove and its various parts. The stove has a weight of 2.6kg. This includes 250 g asbestos, the rest is metal. The asbestos2 is built in between two metalsheets in the outer wall. The construction should be air tight, so that shedding of fibres is notpossible. The quality of the seal is questionable given the stove is heated and this results in ma-terials expansion. The production, the maintenance and the re-cycling of the stove and the as-bestos plates, once the stove is discharged, are all linked with hazardous health risks for theworkers {VII-G-1} (IOC 1994/12).

The improved efficiency of the Nutan stoves is due to the better preheating of the in-flowing air.The outer shell has a temperature of only 40°C to 50°C. The useful heat output is 0.95 kW. Forthe preheating phase a time of 1.5 to 3 minutes is required. The stoves have not been widelyaccepted despite their greater efficiency, because some users think that the power is not suffi-cient {VII-G-4} (IOC 1994/12; TERI 1989/03).

Figure 7.4: Photo of a superior wick stove and its individual parts (LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER 1995)

7.2 Cookstoves for the Use with LPGThe use of LPG is possible with different types of cookstoves. The various parts of a gas instal-lation are shown in Figure 7.5. A pressure regulator is connected to the cylinder valve. It sup-plies the gas at a constant pressure to the stove. This pressure regulator is connected to thestove by a rubber tube. The gas is mixed with ambient air in a specially designed mixing tube.The air-fuel mixture burns through a burner. After putting the filled vessel on the burner, thetaps of the burner is opened to light the flame with a match. The flame should be blue in colourto optimise the use of the gas. The use of LPG allows a good control of the fire in comparisonto other types of cooking {VII-G-4} (BPCL n.d.).

There are over 200 manufacturers of LPG cookstoves in India {VII-H-4}. They are sold on thefree market in different sizes and types. There are one and two burner stoves, two burner stovesbeing more common. Typically the burners are of two different sizes. The consumption rate iscontrollable by the simmer position. The price ranges from Rs 450 to about Rs 2,000. The

2The asbestos is wetted, rolled and put between two metal sheets of the frame for insulation.

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stoves are made mainly of steel, and the weight ranges from 700 g to 2,000 g. The capacity forone flame is normally about 2,300 watt.

Specifications for the cookstoves used in India, are given by the Indian Standards Institution.The thermal efficiency for ”ISI” marked LPG stoves ranges from 60% to 68%. After the newstandards of 1992, it has to be above 64% to fulfil the ISI specifications (ISI 1984/06; TERI1989/03; PCRA 1993/11).

It should be possible to reduce the consumption rate in regard to the proposed burning rate. Forburners with a gas rate of up to 60 litres per hour, a reduction of 33% of the rated capacity isrecommended. For burners with a gas rate above 60 l/h, a reduction of 21 l/h or 25% of therated capacity (whichever is higher) is possible. Burners with a gas rate up to 20 l/h are ex-empted from these provisions. With a test under using conditions it has to be proved that nosoot is deposited on the burner or on the bottom of the vessel due to improper burning condi-tions {VII-G-4}. The carbon monoxide/carbon dioxide ratio of the exhaust gases under differentworking conditions must not exceed 2 per cent (ISI 1984/06).

Figure 7.5: Parts of an LPG installation (BPCL n.d.)

The IIP has developed a new LPG stove with an efficiency of 72%. This stove has an improvedslot with a smaller angle step optimising the way the flames are taken to the vessel. The mixingtube has a venturi-like narrowing instead of a straight tube. Soon, this technology will be madeuse of licence-free by stove-producers. Given this new development, the ISI specifications maybe raised (IIP 1994/12).

Previous improvements for LPG stoves have not always been welcomed by the user. Somecooks think that the heat of the flame is not spread uniformly enough for a sufficient cooking ofchapatis, a type of bread baked in a pan. New developments must take this criticism into ac-count (IOC 1994/12). About 50% of cooking gas-related accidents are caused by leakage fromthe rubber tube. The users of LPG are advised to follow the basic safety rules {VII-G-6} (BPCLn.d.).

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7.3 Energy Use and Emissions of Pollutants

7.3.1 Average Fuel Consumption for CookingThe annual use of cooking energy for one household is difficult to estimate. It depends on manyvariables. For example (NEERAJA/VENKATA 1991):

• Number of persons

• Cooking and food habits

• Age group of the homemakers

• Regional availability

• Prices and family income

• Convenience of the fuels

• Efficiency of the used cookstove

Table 7.1 shows figures for the annual fuel consumption of Indian households {VII-A-1, 2}. Thefigures found by different authors vary in a wide range according to the above factors. The av-erage residential consumption of LPG was 3.2 kg per head in 1993/94. If the LPG consumptionis related to the registered consuming families, the average is calculated to be 141 kg per family(5 persons) and year (MODAK 1995). The average Indian person consumed 8.2 kg of kerosenein 1991/92 if the availability is divided through the inhabitants (TEDDY 1994).

The values given by TERI (1989/03) range between 6.8 and 12.6 annual refills of the LPG cyl-inders, depending on the city and the efficiency of the cookstove. This equals a consumption of96 kg to 178 kg of LPG. The annual consumption of kerosene per household is assumed torange from 110 kg to 321 kg. In this scenario, the efficiency of LPG cookstoves ranges from60% to 65%. Kerosene cookstoves are assumed to have an efficiency between 35% and 60%.Thus the useful energy requirement ranges from 2,800 MJ to 4,850 MJ per year and household.

KULKARNI ET AL. (1994) looked at the energy use in three Indian cities. The annual consump-tion varied depending on the family income and the city. For LPG it ranged from 8.8 to 40.3 kgand for kerosene from 8.5 to 34.6 kg per household. REDDY/REDDY (1994) investigated theenergy use of urban households in Bangalore. The average consumption of LPG was estimatedat 156 kg per year. The annual use of kerosene was set at 214 kg. RAIYANI ET AL. (1993) meas-ured the energy use in Ahmedabad. The result was a fuel use of 186 kg and 183 kg for keroseneand LPG respectively.

In the survey of KULKARNI ET AL. (1994) the investigation of changes in the total householdenergy consumption between 1982 and 1989 is interesting. The average consumption in low-and middle-income households had fallen to one-third and to one-fifth of the 1982 level. Thischange can be attributed to a general change to higher efficiency fuels over the observed period.The relatively low energy use of high income households rose by approximately 62% between1982 and 1989. This reflects the demand for an increasing number of energy services usingmainly electricity (KULKARNI ET AL. 1994).

NEERAJA/VENKATA (1991) investigated the fuel consumption of rural households in the Gunturdistrict of Andhra Pradesh. The annual use of kerosene ranged from 0.12 kg to 1.4 kg perhousehold depending on the socio-economic status. LPG consumption ranged from 1 kg to 3.5kg per year per family. The low values indicate that in most cases the families used different fu-

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7 Cooking Life Cycle Inventory

els. The commercial fuels were used mainly for purposes such as making coffee, breakfast teaand snacks.

Table 7.1: Annual fuel consumption of Indian households (kg per household)

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

All Indianaverage

Indiancities

Indian cities Bangalore Ahmedabad Rural areas

AAAAAAAA

Kerosene 41 110 - 321 8.5 - 34.6 214 186 0.12 - 1.4AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

AAAAAAAAAA

LPG 141 96 - 178 8.8 - 40.3 156 183 1.00 - 3.5

AAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Source MODAK 1995;TEDDY 1994

TERI1989/03

KULKARNI ET

AL. 1994REDDY/REDDY

1994RAIYANI ET AL.1993

NEERAJA/VENKATA 1991

The scenario for the LCI is calculated on the basis of a requirement for useful energy of 1,000MJ. Table 7.2 shows the amount of fuel necessary to produce this energy with cookstoves withvarieties of thermal efficiencies. The value of 1,000 MJ is a little bit more than the annual re-quirement of one person. This value is large enough also to calculate a result for most of theindicators using TEMIS. This estimation also reflects the fact that it is not possible to give anaverage energy using requirement for all households. It is possible to change this value. If therequirement for useful heat, i.e. for one city, is known, it is easy to calculate the related envi-ronmental impacts by means of the computer program TEMIS.

Table 7.2: Quantity of fuel needed to provide a useful cooking energy of 1,000 MJ using stove of different statedefficiencies (kg)

Efficiency Kerosene LPG42% 55.6 52.656% 41.7 39.560% 38.9 36.872% 32.4 30.7

7.3.2 Efficiency of Indian CookstovesIn general the fabrication of stoves in India is reserved for small-scale industries, which haveneither the technical expertise nor the other resources necessary to produce high-efficiencystoves at the required power ranges. Further improvements for LPG and SKO stoves appear tobe difficult to achieve given the increased production costs. The average efficiency of cookingfuels is given in Table 7.3. The efficiency is dependent on the type of cookstove used and on thecooking practices. Savings of up to up to 30% of LPG or kerosene are possible by implement-ing a few simple fuel-saving-tips3 (BHANDARI/THUKRAL 1994; PCRA 1993/11; TEDDY 1994).

Table 7.3: Average efficiency of cookstoves using commercial fuels in India and the prescribed standards

Average Standard OptimumKerosene (in pressure stoves) 56%† 55% to 58% 64%Kerosene (in wick stoves) 42%† 60% > 60%LPG 63% 62% 72%

Sources: TEDDY 1994; ISI 1979/11, 1984/07, 1986/05† BHANDARI/THUKRAL (1994) assumed the average efficiency for kerosene stoves in India to be 40%

3The Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) was set up by the Government of India. It promotespetroleum conservation in various sectors of the economy. Fuel saving while cooking is possible for example byusing pressure cooker, by use of optimum quantity of water or by cleaning the burner of the stove (PCRA1993/11).

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7.3.3 Measurement of Cookstove EmissionsThe measurement of cookstove emissions is not easy. The stoves have no stacks to fix a samplecollector in the flue gas current. The result being normally an artificial stack is constructed overthe cookstove. The flue gases are collected using a bypass. Normally the results reflect an op-timised use of the cookstove. In reality, mistakes are made by the user that may lead to a lowerefficiency and higher emissions.

Figure 7.6: Photo of an experiment with an LPG cookstove at the TERI laboratory

Figure 7.6 shows the experimental kitchen of TERI. The photo shows an experiment to measurethe emissions of an LPG cookstove. The emissions of a pre-defined cooking session are col-lected in a polyethylene bag. The average concentration of air pollutants in the flue gases ismeasured by gas chromatography.

Only the ratio of CO to CO2 is regulated by the Indian standards for cookstoves. It must not ex-ceed 0.02 for all types of stoves. This equals concentrations in the flue gases of 3,250 mg/Nm³and 2,900 mg/Nm³ for kerosene and LPG stoves respectively, if the oxygen content of the fluegases is estimated to be 3%.

7.3.4 Inventory for Cooking with KeroseneA difficult question in the estimation of the emissions of pressurised kerosene stoves is whetherthe emissions in the heating phase should be included or not. The emissions during this phaseare very high. LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER (1995) found that the emissions in the first 3 minutesfor some pollutants are much higher than during cooking. Table 7.4 shows the ratios of the

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pollutant concentration during the starting time and while using the stove. The total emission ofparticles, for example in the first 3 minutes, is as high as the subsequent emissions in the follow-ing 5 hours of cooking.

In a survey, TERI (1987/02) found out that for any given fuel, the more efficient a stove, thehigher the emission factors. In half of the studied cases, the increases in efficiency were greaterthan the increases in emission factors, so that total emissions per task were lower. This fact wasalso found by LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER (1995) for some pollutants. The change of the flue gasconcentration, if the kerosene stove is used with a higher power, is given in Table 7.4.

Many surveys on pollutants emitted by cookstoves investigated the ambient air situation in thekitchen. The results of these studies cannot be used for the LCI. Emission data for kerosenecookstoves, as investigated by different authors, are shown in Table 7.5. Most authors gaveemission data in g/kg of fuel. These data are changed to flue gas concentrations. The oxygencontent is standardised at 3 per cent. The data for some pollutants vary with the ratio of 1 to100. The surveys may have taken different assumptions for the inclusion of emissions duringstarting time. In some cases the range of the measured values is also given.

SCHWENNINGER/SCHULTE (1995) investigated the influence of different parameters on theemission of carbon monoxide, e.g. power, distance stove to vessel or used burners. This pa-rameter is a lead indicator for other pollutants. The values found differ considerably, dependingon the user’ practices.

It was rather difficult to establish average values for the LCI. Preliminary calculations indicatethat the efficiency and the emissions of the cookstoves determine the results of the LCI consid-erably4. All environmental impacts of the upper life cycle are lower if the efficiency is greater.The direct emissions from the cookstove are largely responsible for air pollutants.

The LCI scenario should give the emission figures over a period of one hour cooking with aprior heating time of 3 minutes. To estimate the range of possible emissions from cooking withkerosene three estimates are made. They are shown in Table 7.6 {VII-D-1..5}. The worst caseconsiders the upper range of the above given values. The mean process stands for a possible,„normal“ average, and the optimum process shows values for an optimised cookstove. The datais estimated as follows.

The value for NOX is in the range of the found values, if the survey of DAVE is neglected. Par-ticulate matter is estimated at a value that includes an assumption of the higher values during thestarting time. The estimation for carbon monoxide considers also the Indian standards. The val-ues for the greenhouse gases follow the studies of EPA, BPPT/KFA and the EM.

4 The LCA process is an iterative one where you move continuously forward and backward between precedingand following modules (BERG ET AL. 1994).

Ratio ChangeCO 10 >=NO2 0.05 - 0.3 =PM 100 =Aldehyde and ketone 10 - 50 >=PAH a 50 - 10,000 >=a PAH - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Table 7.4: Ratio for the concentration of pollut-ants in the flue gases between thestarting time and the normal cookingsession. Changes to the pollutant con-centration with a higher power kero-sene stove (LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER

1995)

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7 Cooking Life Cycle Inventory

Table 7.5: Emission data for various kerosene cookstoves (mg/Nm³) and range of investigated values in brackets

Nutan d Spaceheaters i

KR-Kerosette d

SKOstoves b

SKOstoves e, f

Primas 101 c MSR-X-GK c Stove a Stoveg,h

eta 60% - 57% - - 62%(57%-65%)

46%(38%-63%)

- 45%

Capacity 1.23 kW - 1.01 kW - - 2.50 kW(1.70-2.90)

2.80 kW(0.90-3.17)

4.3kW

2 kW

NOX - 20-160 - - 209 e 289(257-332)

331(274-380)

[8] -

PM 268(98-431)

0.14-1.1 431(163-691)

- - 2.8(1.5-3.8)

5.9(5.2-7.2)

[8.5] 19 h

CO5,122

(2,683-7,560)

32-490 8,373(4,390-12,276)

3,0892,000 f

(500-60,000)

574(320-810)

275(162-393)

[50] 500 g

Methane - - - 81 - - - - 5 h

NMVOC - - - 894 † - - - - 94 h

N2O - - - 4.1 - - - - 7 g

Sources: a DAVE 1987 (The measured values are likely not standardised on a oxygen content of the flue gases)b EPA 1992; c LAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER 1995 (only cooking); d TERI 1987/02; e YAMANAKA ET AL 1978(for a kerosene heater); f SCHWENNINGER/SCHULTE 1995 (own estimation for 3 minutes preheatingand 60 minutes cooking); g EM 1995; h BPPT/KFA 1992; TRAYNOR ET AL. 1983

† - Total non-methane organic compounds (TNMOC)

Table 7.6: Estimates for three kerosene cookstoves in the LCI (mg/Nm³)

Kerosene worst case Kerosene mean Kerosene optimumeta 42% 54% 64%Capacity 1.50 kW 1.50 kW 1.50 kWNOX 300 250 150PM 400 30 15CO 8,000 2,000 500Methane 80 40 0NMVOC 900 500 100N2O 7 3 1

Table 7.7 shows the additional data necessary for the calculations with TEMIS {VII-B-2}. Thelife expectancy is estimated at 4 years only because the practical experience made byLAUTERBACH/SCHNAITER (1995) shows high efforts for maintenance and repairing of thecookstoves.

Table 7.7: Estimates of additional data for the kerosene cooking process

Unit Minimum Maximum EstimationLoad h/a 500 1,000 1,000Weight g 1,000 2,600 1,500Price Rs 100 135 100Life time a 4 10 4

A further impact of the use of kerosene stoves is the polluting of water when washing the ves-sels. Soot is deposited on the vessel during the cooking. Washing the vessels causes emissionsof COD and BOD {VII-C-1..3}. These impacts are difficult to calculate but they might be impor-tant under the assumption that 0.5 to 1 litre of water is used to wash the vessel after 1 to 1.5hours of cooking. Information on this point is missing, but it can be said that cooking with kero-

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7 Cooking Life Cycle Inventory

sene is more polluting (for these indicators) than cooking with LPG. Further research work onthis issue may present interesting results.

7.3.5 Inventory for Cooking with LPGEmission data for LPG cookstoves were available from different sources. These data are shownin Table 7.8. The concentration of pollutants in the flue gases is calculated with an oxygen con-tent of 3 per cent. Again the data cover a large range. The reason for the great differences is notclear. For the LCI, three scenarios are considered. A worst case scenario to estimate a cook-stove with high emissions, a mean scenario that equals with an estimated „normal“ use of LPGcookstoves and a third scenario with an optimised use of LPG stoves {VII-D-1..5, B-2}. The val-ues are estimated as far as possible to be in the range of the results of EPA (1992), EM (1995),BPPT/KFA (1992) and ÖKO (1994/12). The low NOX

value of YAMANAKA ET AL. does notseem to be reliable. The estimates for CO consider the Indian standards. The investment costsfor the stove and a cylinder are estimated to be about 2,000 Rs {VII-H-1}. The life time of anLPG stove is estimated to be 7 years.

Table 7.8: Emission data for LPG cookstoves, space heaters and estimates for the LCI

AAAAAAAA

AAAAAAAA

Unit Propane-gas a

LPG b Spaceheater f

LPG LPGworst case

LPGmean

LPGoptimum

A A

AAAAA

AAAAA

eta 65% - - 55% a 60% 64% 72%AAAA

AAAA

Capacity kW 1.0 - - 2.0 a 2.3 2.3 2.3AA

AA

AAAA

AAAA

NOX mg/Nm³ 200 - 3.5-140 7 C 200 150 100

AAAAA

AAAAA

PM mg/Nm³ 0.5 - 0.2-2.3 0.0 e 1 0.5 0.0AAAA

AAAA

CO mg/Nm³ 250 1,868 2-170 700 g 2,900 1,800 250

AAAAA

AAAAA

Methane mg/Nm³ 0 3 - - 5 3 0AAAA

AAAA

NMVOC mg/Nm³ 50 233 - 90 e 250 200 50

AAAAA

AAAAA

N2O mg/Nm³ 2.5 2 - 4 d 4 2 1A A

AAAAA

AAAAA

Load h/a 500 1,000 - 500 d 1,000 1,000 1,000AAAA

AAAA

Weight g - 700 2,000c 1,500 1,500 1,500

AAAAA

AAAAA

Life time a 15 7 - 5 d 7 7 7AAAA

AAAA

Costs Rs 2,000 2,000 2,000

Sources: a ÖKO (1994/12); b EPA (1992); C YAMANAKA ET AL. (1978); d EM (1995); e BPPT/KFA (1992);f APTE/TRAYNOR (1993); g TRAYNOR ET AL (1982) for space heaters

7.4 Investigation of Social ImpactsMAITI (1985) investigated the energy crisis and women’s role in five rural Indian villages. Thestudy concentrated on the life of the rural poor. Most of these people use traditional fuels forcooking. Nevertheless, a few results of this study are also interesting for the LCI. Comparablestudies on the social impacts of cooking with commercial fuels was not available.

In all the villages besides agricultural activities, women are entrusted with the major burden ofhousehold work. A survey of the quantities of food consumed by each member of the house-hold, shows of all the household members children were best cared for, followed by men, andlastly women. Important decisions of the household are made by men, while women take nu-merous less important decisions (MAITI 1985).

Cooking was an exclusively female chore {VII-G-2}. It was daily the most time consuming activ-ity for approximately 60 per cent of the respondents in the study. After cultivation fuel collect-ing was the third major activity. Cooking and food processing took between 1.6 and 5.4 hoursof the daily working time that varied among 10 and 14 hours {VII-G-3}. The wife of the principal

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7 Cooking Life Cycle Inventory

earner was chiefly responsible for cooking. Other female family members assisted. Two-thirds ofthe time spent on fuel production were contributed by women. Collecting fuel including process-ing took 9 per cent of the total labour time (MAITI 1985).

The women told the interviewer that an improvement in cooking techniques through the use offuel-efficient stoves was welcome. But without chances of gainful employment, the resultingtime saving would be of little importance to them. For cultural reasons, it is not impossible toreplace the individual cooking system by a more efficient communal means of cooking {VII-G-5}(MAITI 1985).

An improvement in the convenience cooking is associated with the shifts from solid fuels tokerosene and then to gas. The convenience of gaseous fuels is linked with the ease in lightingthe stove, with the ease of adjusting the heat and with the lack of smoke and general cleanliness.Cooking with LPG is less time-consuming than cooking with kerosene and some authors claimthat it provides a hotter flame {VII-G-4} (KULKARNI ET AL. 1994; REDDY/REDDY 1994). Butcooking with commercial fuels also has disadvantages in terms of preparing some traditionalmeals, e.g. chapatis (a type of bread). For these meals traditional stoves or ovens are morepractical {VII-G-4, 5}.

It is unclear which social changes are associated with a change in the used cooking fuels. Somechanges might rather be due to the social status of the household. In well-off households thewomen are mainly responsible for the cooking. But in some cases they can delegate a part of thework to employees. In which case men may also serve as cooks.

7.5 Investigation of Economic IndicatorsWith increasing income, households tend to shift from one energy carrier to another. Thismechanism is described with the concept of the „energy ladder“. Figure 7.7 shows the numberof households from different income groups using a particular household fuel. With rising in-come the preference shifts from firewood and charcoal to kerosene and latterly to LPG andelectricity. The choice of the cooking fuel is also influenced not only by financial considerations.Generally people move up the ladder when they have the opportunity and resources to do so(REDDY/REDDY 1994).

Depending on the efficiency of the stoves, cooking with kerosene or LPG is linked with lowercosts than cooking with other fuels. But the use of kerosene and LPG requires an initial invest-ment for the stove. And the costs of an LPG stove or refilling a cylinder are equal to about onemonth’s salary for a low-income household. Hence, this option is virtually impossible for thesehouseholds. The kerosene is available at subsidised prices for households with ration cards, butthese are only provided to households who can show proof of legal residence {VII-H-1, 2}. As aresult, the large population living in „temporary“ huts (or worse) are deprived of access to sub-sidised kerosene. The households with ration cards usually have to buy additional kerosene onthe open market because the ration quota usually is inadequate. Low-income households areforced into a position of having to buy low-quality fuels in small quantities, even though thesefuels are much more expensive (KULKARNI ET AL. 1994).

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7 Cooking Life Cycle Inventory

Figure 7.7: Substitution of energy carriers for cooking depending on the monthly per capita income(REDDY/REDDY 1994)

7.6 The Situation in DhanawasIn 1987, the village Dhanawas consisted of 151 households with a population of 1,006. Cookingand water heating combined consumed more than 86% of the total energy in 1987. Biomassfuels were the resources mainly used for cooking. They met 97% of the energy demand. In1994, 15 families used LPG as fuel. Biogas plants had emerged as an alternative to LPG, whichis of limited availability. Their number had increased from 3 in 1987 to 23 in 1994 (TERI 1992,1994).

In 1987 kerosene was used by 21% of the people, for lighting in non-electrified households andas a supplementary fuel in electrified households. A large number of the families using kerosenebelonged to the economically well off categories of landless households and farmers with addi-tional occupation. Kerosene met 1% of the total household energy consumption. The averageuse per family was 35.6 kg per year (TERI 1992, 1994).

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This chapter investigates the transportation involved during different stages of the life cycle. Atransport scenario for cooking in the little village Dhanawas is estimated. The forms of transportand their environmental impacts are investigated for the inventory.

The transport sector is a major energy user with a 25% share of the commercial energy con-sumed in India. High Speed Diesel (HSD) is the main petroleum product to meet the energydemand. The railways share of the traffic has decreased since the early 1960’s while the share oftraffic by road increased rather rapidly (TERI 1993/01).

8.1 Description of the Necessary Transports and Scenarios for the InventoryThe scenarios for the transportation of crude oil, kerosene and LPG are given in the next tables.The scenarios investigate the distance covered and the mode of transport between all the stagesof the life cycle. These scenarios can be adapted to a special region of India by changing thetransport distance. The tables show the data for a scenario that is adapted to the use of LPG andkerosene in Dhanawas.

An important aspect of utilisation of freight vehicles is the occurrence and frequency of emptytrips. For logistical reasons travelling empty a part of the distance may be unavoidable. Some ofthe respondents in TERI (1993/05) report that for over 50 per cent of the covered distance theirvehicle is without any freight. This problem of empty loads on return journey is particularly ac-tuate with the transport of petroleum products and indeed can be assumed as being the norm.The load of the vehicles is considered in the estimations for the energy use and the environ-mental impacts. The distances travelled are estimated based on information given by BRADNOCK

(1994), KÜMMERLY+FREY (n.d.) and POOVENDRAN (1994).

The national demand for Crude Oil, LPG and Kerosene is higher than the amount produced inIndia. Due to this situation, imports (mainly by tankers) are necessary. Table 8.1 gives the de-tails of crude oil import. The vast majority of the crude oil arrives from OPEC countries in thegulf region (SENGUPTA 1994).

Table 8.1: Transport of crude oil to India

Crude Oil Import to IndiaSingle distance (km) 3,000Tanker 100%

The imported crude is transported by pipeline to a nearby refinery. Pipelines are also used forthe transport of crude oil and natural gas from the exploitation site to the processing facility.Most of these pipelines have a length of up to 100 km. Environmental issues surrounding thetransportation of crude by pipeline are given in chapter 8.5. A calculation of the environmentalimpacts of the transportation in pipelines was not possible (as described in the same chapter).They are neglected in the life cycle inventory (IPNGS 1992; ONGC 1994/12).

Table 8.2 shows the scenario for the import of LPG and its transport to the bottling plants. LPGis bought from companies in the USA, Japan, Greece and a few Middle-Eastern countries.Handling of LPG imports is at present possible only at Bombay and Vizag. Bombay lies on the

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west coast of India, Vizag on the east coast. The two harbours have a limited capacity for LPGimports. For this reason, the establishment of further facilities is planed for some other harbours.Imports of LPG are received in parcels of 10,000 tonnes. These parcels will be discharged tostorage facilities at nearby refineries. Given that the demand for LPG in other regions is higherthan the respective production, it is obvious that LPG will have to be transported across thecountry (MODAK 1995; TERI 1989/03).

The total freight traffic handled at the major ports of India in 1992/93 was 166 million tonnes.Petroleum products (POL - Petroleum, oil & lubricants) have a 44% share of this traffic. For1992/93 an estimated movement of 26 million tonnes of POL with trains was made. The aver-age lead for the train transports is 603 km (IPNGS 1992). The distances for the bulk movementof LPG and SKO in India can be in excess of 2,000 km (e.g. Bombay to Calcutta 2,173 km).

The LPG can be delivered by rail or road from the storage facilities to the bottling plant. Theinvestment costs for rail fed plants are normally higher, but on the plus side the transport bytrain is cheaper. Two thirds of the LPG are processed in road fed plants and 1/3 by rail fed bot-tling plants. These plants receive also a part of the LPG by road. For long distance transportfrom a harbour rail transport can be assumed. The ratio of rail to road transportation is esti-mated to be 80:201 (BHANDARI/THUKRAL 1994; TERI 1989/03).

Table 8.2: Transport of LPG in India

LPG Import to India Harbour (Bombay, Vizag) or Refinery(Mathura) to Bottling Plant (Ghaziabad)

Single distance (km) 9,000 900Tanker 100% -Train - 80%Truck - 20%

Table 8.3 shows the transport picture for the distribution of LPG in India. The LPG cylindersare transported normally by trucks from the bottling plant to the distributors. From there theyare brought by bike or LCV (Light Commercial Vehicle) to the customer. For large bottlingplants the delivery distance can go up to as much as 400 km whereas the distance for the smallerplants is normally in the range of 10 km. To calculate the transports of cylinders with a truck inTEMIS, the simple distance must be multiplied by 2 to consider also the tare weight of the cyl-inders. (TERI 1993/01).

Table 8.3: Transport data for LPG distribution in India

LPG Bottling Plant (Ghaziabad)to Retailer (Gurgaon)

Retailer (Gurgaon) to Cus-tomer (Dhanawas)

Single distance (km) 45 15Distance total (km) 90 30Truck 100% -LCV - 50%Bike - 50%

The data for the transport of kerosene are given in Table 8.4. The tankers bringing SKO importsmay be received at any of the existing ports in the country. Imports of SKO can similarly be as-sumed to be transported over long distances, after arrival from the harbour. Kerosene is deliv-

1 The ratio rail to road movement and the transport distance have a high influence on the LCI results. This pointshould be investigated more detailed in an update of this study.

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ered from the storage points to the wholesalers. Therefore road, rail and sometimes pipeline2

movement is possible. The ratio of rail to road is assumed to have the same value as for LPG.Transport by road is cheaper only for short distances. In general transport via pipeline is cheaper(TERI 1989/03).

The wholesaler delivers the SKO to authorised dealers or sub-agents (retailers) by tank trucks.A truck in New Delhi typically drives 50 to 60 km per day to deliver the 10,000 litre cargo. Thecustomers bring the kerosene from the shop to their house.

Table 8.4: Transport of kerosene in India

Kerosene Import toIndia

Harbour (Bombay, Vizag) orRefinery (Mathura) to

Wholesaler (New Delhi)

Wholesaler (New Delhi)to Retailer

(Faruknagar)Single distance (km) 9,000 900 30Tankers 100% - -Train - 80% -Truck - 20% 100%

The average distance LPG and kerosene are carried (across India) is estimated at 960 km and930 km respectively. These values appear high, but they consider that a part of the fuels is im-ported and the distance from the harbour to Dhanawas is 1,400 km. LPG processed from off-shore gas is transported over the same distance.

Transport of other fuels, e.g. HSD for the upstream sector, is estimated with a total transport of300 km. The fuels are transported half and half by train and truck. Hardcoal for power plantsand trains is transported 80:20 with trains and trucks. The distance is estimated to be 800 km.This considers the data given by TEDDY (1994) for average transport distances.

8.2 Freight Transport with TankersThe majority of the imported petroleum products are brought by tankers from the Gulf Region{VIII-H-3}. Indian vessels carry about 61% of all transported petroleum oils and lubricants. Mostof the sold fuel in international shipping bunkers is furnace oil (F.O.). Data on the energy in-tensity of cargo haulage for India was not available (IPNGS 1992; TEDDY 1994). Thus thecalculations for the energy use and the environmental impacts of the transportation are esti-mated under consideration of values investigated by different authors. The estimation is madeassuming an average load of 50%, because the ships are empty on their return journey. Table8.5 shows the estimated values. The table shows the data for tankers found by BUWAL (1991),FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) and ÖKO (1994/12) {VIII-A-1, B-2, D-1..5, F-1}.

For the transport of crude oil additives are necessary to maintain it in a liquid state. During thetransport of crude the so called BSW (bottom sediment and water) builds up. Sooner or laterthis must be discharged {VIII-E-2}. The use of tankers for oil transportation brings with it thepossibility of serious accidents. The threat that this means to the marine ecosystem cannot beoverstated. Potentially large colonies of fish and even whole coral reefs can be wiped out {VIII-G-6} (ONGC 1994/12; TERI 1993/01).

Also small accidents with the possibility of oil spillage happen frequently {VIII-C-1..7, G-6}. Onesuch accident was the running to ground of the Innovative I in the coastal waters of AndhraPradesh. The tanker was hired to carry 1,600 t of crude from the Rawa oil field to the refinery inVizag. The threat of oil spills has generated criticism by environmentalists on the ”apathetic”

2The movement in pipelines is not considered as described in chapter 8.5.

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attitude of the oil producing companies towards safety regulations. They said that the Oil SpillContingency Plans drawn up by the oil companies have evidently not been executed. In the 70’sthere was another tanker accident on an island near the Indian coast (DOWN TO EARTH 1994/06;PETROTECH 1995).

OCC (1995) estimates the ocean loss of imported kerosene to be 4.5%. This value appears veryhigh. UBA (1993) estimated the total loss to be about 0.008% of the transported crude oilamount. FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) found a value of 0.08% for the world wide crude oiltransports using tankers. This value includes the spillage in smaller accidents. The loss of im-ports is estimated for the LCI at 0.001% per 100 km for crude oil imports and 0.0004% per 100km for imports of petroleum products {VIII-D-5}. This sums up to total losses of 0.03% and0.036% for the two assumed import scenarios. The losses are considered as emissions of oil &grease (in the case of crude or kerosene imports) in an amount of 0.1/0.04 g/tkm or as NMVOCemissions (for LPG) in an amount of 0.04 g/tkm {VIII-C-7}.

Table 8.5: Data for tankers and estimates (with a 50% load occupancy rate)

Tanker Estimation UnitSteel n.a. 100 n.a. 200 kgDriven distance n.a. 80,000 n.a. 80,000 km/aLifetime n.a. 16 n.a. 16 aFuel oil consumption 0.11 0.1 0.07 0.2 MJ/tkma

Tonnage 40,000 13 n.a. 1 tNOx 0.008 0.10 0.034 0.20 g/tkmPM 0.005 0.01 0.004 0.01 g/tkmCO 0.001 0.016 0.0044 0.02 g/tkmCH4 n.a. 0.0003 0.0006 0.001 g/tkmNMVOC 0.001 0.003 0.0009 0.002 g/tkmN2O n.a. 0.00003 n.a. 0.00005 g/tkmWaste 0.01 0.02 g/tkmSource BUWAL

1991ÖKO 1994/12 FRISCHKNECHT ET

AL. 1995

a tkm - per tonne and kilometre

8.3 Freight Transport with TrainsThe Indian railway system is the second largest in the world with a route network of 62 thou-sand kilometres. A work force of 1.6 million looks after the railway operations {IX-A-5}. In the1950s the government initiated a programme of track electrification. However, recognising thatelectrification is capital intensive, diesel traction increased much faster than electric traction(KARNIK 1989).

The following data is valid for 1992/93 (unless otherwise stated). The shares for rail freighttraffic and non-suburban passenger traffic were 69% and 31% respectively. The total amount ofrail freight traffic was 252 billion net tkm. If the weight of the moved equipment is considered,this amounts to total 737 billion gross tkm. The share of mineral oils is 15 billion tkm. The aver-age lead distance for moved goods was 721 km (TEDDY 1994). Table 8.6 shows the share ofdifferent moods of traction. Data of the share in net km was available only for 1989/90. Theestimation for the used dispatcher of net tonne km considers the rising share of electric traction.The table shows also the distance driven by the different types of trains and an estimation of the

3The transport devices are assumed to have a tonnage of 1 because otherwise the calculations made by TEMISare incorrect.

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land use for the railways {IX-F-1}. This estimation is based on a calculation of land, covered bytracks.

Table 8.6: Ratios for the use of energy carriers (net and gross tonne per km) in different years and estimates forthe land use of rail transports

Share of netfreight

Share of grosstonne km

Estimationfor the shareof net freight

Drivendistance(km/a)

Land use

(m²)Year 1989/90 a 1992/93 b 1992/93 b 1992/93Steam traction 0.45% 3.5% 0.4% 2.58E+10 1.15E+7Diesel traction 59.49% 52.3% 54.0% 3.86E+11 1.70E+8Electric traction 40.06% 44.2% 45.6% 3.25E+11 1.44E+8

Sources: a RAILWAY (1992) statistics for 1989/91 b TEDDY (1994)

The Indian Railways are a major user of liquid fuels. With the switch from steam to diesel oiland electricity traction there has been an increase in energy efficiency {IX-A-1, A-3, A-4}. IndianRailways have now initiated steps for the introduction of more fuel and energy efficient dieseland electric locomotives (TERI 1993/01).

Full data on the environmental impacts of rail transport are not available. Only estimations ofenergy consumption per tonne and kilometre are possible. Table 8.7 shows different calculationsfor the energy use of trains. The values are compared with the data found by FRISCHKNECHT ET

AL. (1995) for the situation in Europe. Values for gross-tonne km also take the weight of wag-ons and locomotives into account. The use of energy for other purposes in the railway system isnot represented. The shown values take the load of the system into account. The values foundfor Europe are a little bit higher because the ratio of gross to net tonne km is greater. For thecalculation of the environmental impacts the use of total MJ per transported tonne of freight isdecisive. This estimation is made in the last row {IX-A-1, A-3..4}.

Table 8.7: Energy use per tonne km in the Indian railway system and estimation for the LCI

Diesel oil Electricity SteamMJ/gross-tkm a 0.13 0.03 2.23MJ/gross-tkm b 0.22 0.07 3.68MJ/gross-tkm c 0.27 0.09 3.77

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

MJ/gross-tkm f 0.21 0.08 n.a.MJ/net-tkm a 0.25 0.07 5.38MJ/net-tkm d 0.35 0.12 8.42MJ/net-tkm b 0.62 0.18 10.63

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

MJ/net-tkm f 0.47 0.18 n.a.Estimation (MJ/net-tkm) 0.40 0.12 7.00

Sources: a RAILWAY (1992) statistics for 1989/91 b TEDDY (1994) for different yearsc DAS (1994) d Karnik4(1989) for 1980/81 f FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995 (for Europe)

4The estimation of the energy use for different types of train movement by KARNIK (1989) covers the years until1980/81. The energy use is calculated by the division of the used fuel by the transported freight tonne kilome-tres. The author shares the opinion that the energy efficiency might decrease in the following years, because theaverage age of the locomotives will rise in the future. Besides, the production of new locomotives has not keptpace with the growing demand. The provision of diesel oil and electricity driven locomotives will also extendedto less frequently used routes.

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In the LCI, electricity for the trains is delivered by the same generic power plant as for thedownstream sector. The environmental impacts of steam trains are calculated with a combustiondevice for the used fuels. The combustion device of hardcoal for steam trains is based on datagiven by ÖKO (1994/12). The values are shown in Table 8.8. The emissions of diesel trains areestimated with emission data investigated by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) and ÖKO (1994/12).These data are shown in g/tkm in Table 8.8. The use of lubricants is not considered for theLCI5. The life time is estimated to be 15 years. The use of steel is estimated to be 3 t per ton oftransport capacity.

Table 8.8: Estimation for a generic hardcoal combustion device for steam trains and emission data for a dieseloil driven train

NOX PM CO CH4 NMVOC N2OHardcoal combustion (mg/Nm³) 500 10,000 250 5 50 5Diesel train a (g/tkm) 0.42 0.011 0.1 0.002 0.04 0.0008Diesel train b (g/tkm) 0.5 0.04 0.15 0.01 0.14 0.00005Estimation Diesel train (g/tkm) 0.5 0.03 0.15 0.005 0.1 0.0005

Sources: a FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995 b ÖKO 1994/12

8.4 Freight Transport with Trucks and Light Commercial VehiclesRoad freight services are almost wholly owned and operated by the private sector. With steps asthe liberalisation of issuing National and Zonal permits certain impediments to the growth of thissector have been removed (TERI 1993/01).

The LCI distinguishes between light commercial vehicle (LCV) and trucks. Trucks have a totalgross weight of more than 3 tonnes. LCVs are not as heavy as trucks. An average tank-lorry hasan empty weight of circa 9 tonnes and can load about 7 tonnes LPG or kerosene in bulk. AnAshok Leyland truck that is used as an LPG van can transport 360 cylinders. This is equivalentto 11 tonnes freight. An LCV used for transporting LPG can carry up to 20 cylinders (614 kg).Kerosene is transported from the wholesaler to the retailer in tank trucks that have four tankswith a total capacity of 10,000 litres (TERI 1993/01).

Data about the emissions of air pollutants from Indian diesel vehicles is available as gram per kgof burnt diesel oil. The calculation is based on the studies of vehicle emissions by the Indian In-stitute of Petroleum (IIP 1985,1995/09). This data is compared in Table 8.9 with values foundby FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) for European diesel trucks {X-D-1..5}.

Table 8.9: Emission data for diesel vehicles and energy use in India and Europe

Unit Europe India EstimationNOx g/kg 62 44 60PM g/kg 1.2 2.9 2.9CO g/kg 19 23 23Methane g/kg 0.2 n.a. 0.2Hydrocarbons g/kg 14 10 14N2O g/kg 0.08 n.a. 0.1Energy use l/100 km 16t: 26 LCV: 12 12Energy use l/100 km 40t: 38 Truck: 23 28

Sources: TERI 1993/5; GOI 1991; IIP 1985, 1994/09; FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. 1995

5The amount of lubricating oil used in engines for all goods services in 1989/90 was 17.2 million litres. In thefollowing year 16.4 million litres were used (RAILWAY 1992).

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Data about the average fuel use of Indian vehicles is available but it is not clear for which grossweight they are valid. The comparison with a 16 t and a 40 t gross weight truck in Europe sug-gests the calculation is for a smaller truck. The estimation for the LCI is shown in the last col-umn. It considers that some of the values found are higher for European trucks. A possible rea-son for the differences is in the assumption of different driving scenarios. The European valuesseem likely to be closer to the real circumstances.

The data for the LCI are shown in Table 8.10. The values for India are calculated with the fac-tors for fuel emissions as shown in Table 8.9. The values are multiplied by 2 to consider the as-sumed average load of 50% for the truck transport. The estimation for the load in the data in-vestigated in Europe is not clear. The land use is assumed to have a higher value. This reflectsthat the truck needs a larger area for driving than just the covered square meters.

The estimation for the land use considers the data found by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) whoestimated this indicator to be 0.0097 m²/tkm. The same source was used to estimate the demandfor cement as a construction material to be about 3 t for the truck. The calculations by theseauthors demonstrated that one third of the street traffic related energy uses and emissions arecaused due to the production of vehicles and the construction of streets. These impacts are notconsidered in the LCI for India.

Table 8.10: Emission data for Indian transport vehicles with an average load of 50% and a comparison withdata for Europe

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

AAAAAAAAAAAA

UnitLight

CommercialVehicle

TruckIndia

SmallTruck

Germany

TruckGermany

TruckEurope

AAAAAAAA

AAAA

Fuel consumption l/100 km 12 28 45 121 38

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

Tonnage t 0.8 10 10 20 16

AAAAAAAA

AAAA

Fuel consumption MJ/tkm 10 2 1.57 2.13 0.85

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

NOx g/tkm 15 3 1.5 0.8 0.995

AAAAAAAA

AAAA

PM g/tkm 0.75 0.14 0.1 0.0575 0.080

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

CO g/tkm 6 1 0.5 0.1225 0.398

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

CH4 g/tkm 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.01 -

AAAAAAAA

AAAA

NMVOC g/tkm 3.5 0.6 0.4 0.0875 0.199

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

N2O g/tkm 0.025 0.005 0.0001 5.0E-05 -

AAAAAAAA

AAAA

Material Steel t 0.8 10 10 10 -

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

Material Cement t 0.25 3AAAAAAAA

AAAA

Distance per year km 30,000 30,000 40,000 40,000 -

AAAAAAAAAA

AAAAA

Land use m² 180 1,000 10 10 -AAAAAAAA

AAAA

Life time a 10 10 10 10 -

Sources: Own calculation with TERI 1993/5; GOI 1991; IIP 1985, 1994/09. Data for European trucks as givenby BUWAL 1991 (Europe) and ÖKO 1994/12 (Germany)

A major problem for all users of Indian roads are the frequent accidents. Every year many peo-ple lose their lives on Indian streets or damage their health {X-G-1, G-6}. A serious accidenthappened on 12 March 1995 near Madras. A Public Transport Corporation bus, a tanker carry-ing benzene and a tractor trailer collided. In the accident 75 people died when the vehicles burstinto flames. In another accident six people were killed and four suffered severe burns when anLPG tanker collided with a truck and caught fire. The accident took place near Nashik on the25th of March (INDIAN EXPRESS 1995; THE TIMES OF INDIA 1995).

Figure 8.1 shows LPG and other tank trucks waiting outside a refinery in Bombay. Due to abreakdown of the plant, hundreds of trucks had to wait for their cargo. Some of the driverscame distances of over 1,000 kilometres. They were left waiting there for 1 or 2 weeks.

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8 Life Cycle Inventory for the Transport of Crude Oil, Natural Gas, LPG and Kerosene

Figure 8.1: Photo of LPG-trucks waiting for cargo in front of a refinery in Bombay

8.5 Transport of Petroleum Products by PipelinesThe total length of crude pipelines is 4,000 km, of gas pipelines 3,675 km, and there is onepipeline for LPG 24 km long. Most pipelines are used for transportation between differentstages of product conversion. Normally pipelines are well maintained and frequently inspected.Leaks from pipelines should be restricted to accidents (IPNGS 1992; ONGC 1994/12).

The construction of cross country pipelines has significant environmental impacts. The soilstructure and the nutrient uptake pattern are disturbed. The measurements during constructioncan be followed up by soil erosion. Whenever a pipeline crosses a stream, the construction canlead to fishing disturbance. The vegetation along the construction route is destroyed and it willtake time until the normal flora and fauna return. Pipeline failures can affect the population inthe surrounding area negatively6 (CHAKRABARTY 1995).

A calculation of the environmental impacts of the pipeline transportation in Indian was not pos-sible. Statistical data about the products flowing between the different processing units was notavailable. Neither significant data about the energy use could be found. The environmental im-pacts in comparison to other modes of transport can be assumed to be low. The energy use isless, the danger of accidents seems to be less and the land used can be cultivated again after afew years. The energy used in offshore pipelines is included in the LCI for the extraction stage,because it is also met by the existing power stations. Also other parts of the energy use arelikely to be included in data for refineries, because a few pumping stations are inside the pro-duction area.

6The possible environmental impacts and measurements to minimise these impacts are described by CHAK-

RABARTY (1995).

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8 Life Cycle Inventory for the Transport of Crude Oil, Natural Gas, LPG and Kerosene

8.6 Transport of Goods with BicycleBikes are used to deliver the LPG cylinders to the customer. One bike carries 3 cylinders (90.2kg). The data for the use of bikes as transport vehicles are shown in Table 8.11 {B-1, F-1}. Theuse of human power is not considered in the calculations for the LCA (X-A-5). Figure 8.2 showsa photo of a bike that is used for the transport of LPG cylinders. Sometimes bikes are also usedto transport kerosene in cities. A standard oil barrel fits onto a 3-wheeler bicycle. The keroseneis refilled from this barrel into the customers' container. In this case nearly 200 kg of kerosene istransported on the street. This transport mode of transport seems highly dangerous {X-G-6}.

Table 8.11: Data for the use of bikes as freight transport vehicles

Load factor 3,000 h/aTonnage 90 kgSteel 15 kgDriven distance 15,000 km/aLife time 5 aLand use 5 m²

Figure 8.2: Transport of LPG cylinders with a bicycle

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

Results from all the previous stages in the LCI are now combined with the horizontal analysis.This is done in two steps. First environmental data sheets for LPG and kerosene are calculatedand discussed. In a second step, the overall impacts of cooking in Dhanawas are given. The re-sults of the horizontal analysis are compared primarily in a short evaluation.

The last three steps of an LCA are carried out in one chapter, which is not the standard practicefor a life cycle assessment. Normally the last steps are worked out in more detail: The emissionsdue to an assumed scenario are calculated in a first step. The possible effects for the environ-ment, due to the calculated emissions, are described in a following step. The results are thenevaluated in a final step.

This approach would not have been useful for this study. One aim of this study is to make acomparison with the results of an LCI for biomass fuels. The LCI for biomass fuels was notavailable at this time. The last steps of the LCA should bring together all these results. Accord-ingly the task of comparison and evaluation will be done in more detail in the study byLAUTERBACH (n.d.).

9.1 Horizontal Analysis for Quantifiable Impacts of the LPG and Kerosene Supply toDhanawas

Table 9.1 gives the results of a scenario calculating the environmental burdens of LPG and kero-sene, from its point of sale to the end consumer. This is the retailer in the case of kerosene orthe delivery of LPG to the household. The results are shown for one kg and for one GJ LHV ofproduct. The Indian values are calculated for two scenarios: A scenario considering the importsof energy carriers as described in the LCI and a scenario looking only at the production of LPGand kerosene in India. It excludes the import of resources or fuels. All indicators are calculatedwith the data investigated in the LCI. The computer program TEMIS 2.0 was used for this cal-culation. The calculation of CO2 eq is described in chapter 2.6.

The table gives comparable values for diesel oil in Europe from the study of BUWAL (1991).Not all stages of distribution are included in these figures. This was the only available informa-tion for a refinery output that could be compared with the results of horizontal analysis. This ispossible because the production of diesel oil is similar to the production of kerosene. Data thatwas investigated by FRISCHKNECHT ET AL. (1995) was too detailed to compare with the Indianvalues. The found profiles for LPG and kerosene are shown in Table 9.1. They are analysed,described and compared in the following sections.

9.1.1 Additional Impacts due to the Material UseTable 9.2 shows the possible additional impact on some indicators due to the material produc-tion in grams and as percentage of the values in Table 9.1. The possible additional impacts dueto the production of steel and cement were calculated with the program TEMIS 2.1 and a dataset for Germany. Information about the possible impacts due to the water demand and the useof chemicals was not available from these data.

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

Table 9.1: Environmental profile for the supply of average (incl. Imports) and in India produced LPG and kerosene to the consumer and comparison with the profile of diesel oil inEurope

Indicator Unit Matrixfield

Kerosene

(1 kg)

IndianKerosene

(1 kg)

LPG

(1 kg)

Indian LPG(1 kg)

Diesel oil(Europe)

(1 kg)

Kerosene

(1 GJ)

IndianKerosene

(1 GJ)

LPG

(1 GJ)

IndianLPG

(1 GJ)

Diesel oil(Europe)

(1 GJ)Primary energy (MJ) A-1..4 50.4 49.5 53.5 52.9 46.4 1,177 1,156 1,182 1,170 1,092Energy (MJ) A-1..4 7.6 6.7 8.2 7.7 n.a. 177 156 182 170 n.a.Fuels (MJ) A-1..4 7.1 6.2 7.7 7.2 3.9 166 145 171 160 92Water (g) B.1 9,642 11,222 7,290 7,380 n.a. 224,976 261,832 161,138 163,132 n.a.Steel (g) B.2 8.4 8.3 14.6 14.6 n.a. 197 194 322 322 n.a.Cement (g) B.3 2.6 4.0 3.9 4.6 n.a. 60 94 86 102 n.a.Chemicals (g) B.4 5.0 2.8 3.8 2.6 n.a. 116 66 83 57 n.a.Effluents (g) C.1 9,300 9,065 5,814 5,168 n.a. 216,981 211,505 128,513 114,245 n.a.BOD (g) C.2 0.015 0.017 0.014 0.015 0.006 0.35 0.40 0.31 0.32 0.14COD (g) C.3 0.071 0.078 0.063 0.065 0.018 1.7 1.8 1.4 1.4 0.42Phenol (g) C.4 1.10E-04 1.00E-04 9.00E-05 7.00E-05 0.00 0.0026 0.0023 0.0020 0.0015 0.00TDS (g) C.5 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.33 13 6.8 7.2 7.1 7.3 298TSS (g) C.6 0.032 0.032 0.029 0.029 0.006 0.74 0.75 0.65 0.64 0.14Oil & grease (g) C.7 0.342 0.065 0.178 0.077 0.163 8.0 1.5 3.9 1.7 3.8SO2 (g) D.1 3.8 1.5 2.8 1.7 3.86 88 36 62 38 91NOX (g) D.2 3.3 2.2 3.3 2.8 1.90 78 51 72 61 45CO (g) D.3 0.72 0.64 0.87 0.83 0.25 17 15 19 18 5.9PM (g) D.4 0.33 0.27 0.35 0.32 0.22 7.6 6.2 7.8 7.1 5.15CH4 (g) D.5 3.6 3.2 3.4 3.1 n.a. 84 74 76 69 n.a.NMVOC (g) D.5 13 12 10 9.1 6.8 296 283 221 201 160N20 (g) D.5 0.0059 0.0067 0.0074 0.0076 0.048 0.14 0.16 0.16 0.17 1.13CO2 (g) D.5 482 401 516 469 n.a. 11,256 9,349 11,402 10,367 n.a.CO2 eq † (g) D.5 743 635 743 673 n.a. 17,326 14,817 16,414 14,886 n.a.Cuttings (g) E.1 25 21 29 26 n.a. 586 489 637 581 n.a.Waste (g) E.2 2.5 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.6 57 53 47 44 37Ashes ‡ (g) E.2 4.3 4.5 12.9 13.0 n.a. 100 105 285 287 n.a.Land use (m²) F.1 0.0042 0.0035 0.0085 0.0081 n.a. 0.10 0.08 0.19 0.18 n.a.

† - Calculation described in chapter 2.6 ‡ Ashes are calculated by TEMIS using the ash content of the fuels

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

The TEMIS data only refer to the energy use and the related emissions of air pollutants1. Theindicator with the highest additional burden is CO. These emissions are from coke and sinterproduction for the steel process. The inclusion of the material production might lead to 28% and40% higher emissions for kerosene and LPG respectively. Apart from this parameter, the addi-tional impacts for the kerosene supply range from 0.4% to 4.3%. In the case of LPG supply,additional impacts from material production deliver a higher share for the total environmentalburden, due to the higher amount of the steel and cement used. The additional impacts reachfrom 0.7% to 5.7%. The inclusion of environmental impacts due to the material productioncould change some of the LCI results. Further research work should investigate this point inmore detail for the situation in India.

Table 9.2: Additional environmental burdens for the supply of one kg LPG or kerosene if the production of steeland cement is calculated with data for Germany (TEMIS 2.1)

Kerosene(Percent of

total)

LPG(Percent of

total)

KeroseneAdditional impact

LPG Additional Impact

Steel use - - 8.4 g 14.6 gCement use - - 2.6 g 3.9 gPrimary Energy 0.40% 0.70% 0.20 MJ 0.35 MJSO2 0.8% 1.9% 0.031 g 0.054 gNOX 1.3% 2.3% 0.045 g 0.076 gCO 28% 40% 0.20 g 0.35 gPM 2.3% 3.5% 0.0075 g 0.0124 gCH4 1.9% 3.5% 0.069 g 0.120 gNMVOC 0.038% 0.083% 0.0048 g 0.008 gN20 4.3% 5.7% 0.00025 g 0.00042 gCO2 3.2% 5.1% 15 g 26 gCO2 eq 2.2% 3.7% 16 g 28 gLand use 0.5% 0.5% 0.00002 m² 0.00004 m²

9.1.2 Analysis of the ImpactsFigure 9.1 shows the origin of the environmental burden for the supply of LPG and kerosene inIndia. The summarised values for both fuels are shown in Table 9.1. Three sections of the directlife cycle were investigated. The upstream sector includes the exploitation of the resourcescrude oil and natural gas. The second section shows the downstream sector with refineries,fractionating and bottling plants. The third sector looks on the transport and distribution ofLPG and kerosene. This includes the import of crude oil and other products with tankers, thetransport of LPG and kerosene from the producer to the consumer and the impacts of their dis-tribution. Each sector includes the production of the used energy carriers and the necessary ef-forts to transport the fuels to the place of consumption. The bar charts show the percentageorigin for different indicators in the three stages of the life cycle. The upper bar stands for kero-sene, the lower one for LPG.

1 The data set standard and the program TEMIS 2.1 were copied from an FTP server of the university of Kassel(cserv.usf.uni-kassel.de, Directory: /pub/envsys). The set contains the data described in ÖKO 1994/12 in a non-official version. The date of saving this set is 22.3.1995. Calculations with the standard data diverge in somepoints from calculations with older data for TEMIS 2.1 (data set generic) or for the original GEMIS 2.0 (dataset standard or ist-west) because these data sets contain mistakes for some processes or have been updated.

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0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Energy SKO

LP G

Steel SKO

LP G

Cement SKO

LP G

Chemicals SKO

LP G

W ater SKO

LP G

Effluents SKO

LP G

BOD SKO

LP G

COD SKO

LP G

T DS SKO

LP G

T SS SKO

LP G

Oil & grease SKO

LP G

SO2 SKO

LP G

NOX SKO

LP G

CO SKO

LP G

PM SKO

LP G

CH4 SKO

LP G

NMVOC SKO

LP G

N2O SKO

LP G

CO2 SKO

LP G

CO2 eq SKO

LP G

Cut t ings SKO

LP G

W aste SKO

LP G

Land use SKO

LP G

AAAAAAUpstream AAA

AAADownstream Transport & distribution

Figure 9.1: Environmental impacts in different sections of the life cycle

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

In comparison the energy use for LPG in the downstream sector has a lower proportion thanthat for kerosene because of the less energy consuming fractionating plants. The share for trans-port is higher in the case of kerosene due to the greater demand for imports using tankers. Moresteel is used in transportation of kerosene. In the LPG scenario it is mainly used for cylinders,needed to transport the LPG. The upstream sector is the main consumer of cement and chemi-cals, which are necessary for drilling the wells. The other sectors also have a share for this indi-cator due to the burden of the used fuels.

Water is mainly used as cooling water in refineries. Thus effluent is also discharged mainly fromthe downstream section. But in some cases the share for water pollutants is nearly the same fordownstream and upstream sector. The exception to this is the emissions of TDS which was notinvestigated for the refineries. Oil & grease are emitted in large amounts by tankers and throughthe discharge of the cuttings into the sea. Waste and cuttings also have a high share in the firstpart of the life cycle.

The analysis regarding air pollutants shows a heterogeneous picture. Sulphur dioxide is emittedin a great extent due to imports by tankers because they use fuel oil with high sulphur content.Refineries are also a significant source. The transport devices cause a great share of the NOX,CO and particle emissions. NMVOC are emitted in a high share with losses during the distribu-tion stage. This is considered in the LPG scenario in the downstream stage of bottling. Methaneis emitted on equally high volume during extraction with the flaring. Carbon dioxide and CO2

equivalents are emitted by all three sectors in the same degree.

The transportation of the products takes a surprisingly high proportion of the environmentalburdens of LPG and kerosene. Table 9.3 indicates this for some selected parameters. For someindicators it shows the main direct source in the scenario for the supply of one kg LPG or kero-sene in India. The impacts are aggregated for all processes concerned in the life cycle includingimports. Trucks for example are used not only in the transport of the cooking fuels but also inthe transport of diesel oil to production devices used in the petroleum extraction.

Table 9.3: Relevance of single processes and caused emissions (g) for selected indicators in the supply scenariofor 1 kg of fuel

Indicator Main emittingprocess

Kerosene Main emittingprocess

LPG

Water pollutants Extraction andrefineries

- Extraction andrefineries

-

Oil & grease Tanker 0.25 Tanker 0.09Waste Crude extraction - Extraction -SO2 Tanker 2 Tanker 0.8Particles Steam train 0.07 Steam train 0.07NOX Tanker 0.95 Truck 0.84CH4 Flaring 1.7 Flaring 1.7NMVOC Distribution 5.0 Refineries -CO Truck 0.21 Truck and LCV 0.37CO2 Flaring 130 Flaring 128CO2 eq Flaring 180 Flaring 177

The table shows that transport devices are the main direct source for some pollutants. Almosthalf of the emitted sulphur dioxide in the life cycle of kerosene originates from transports bytankers. These tankers are also the main source for oil & grease.

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Trucks and LCV are the main single source of NOX and CO. Flaring of natural gas is importantfor the emissions of CO2, methane and CO2 equivalents. NMVOC are emitted mainly due to thelosses during the life cycle and are considered in the process of refining, distribution and bot-tling. The high volume of particles is due to the small proportion of transportation by steamtrains. Exploitation and processing in refineries are the main polluting processes in case ofwaste, effluent and water pollutant indicators. The environmental impacts of transportation arelargely in a direct and immediate relationship to distance journeyed. Further research workneeds to investigate the true impacts of transportation in more detail.

Figure 9.2 and Figure 9.3 give the distribution of fuels used for the scenarios of LPG and kero-sene supply. The main fuels used as energy carriers in the life cycle are natural gas (flaring) andfuel oil (transports and auxiliary energy). Fuel oil is used in a higher degree for the kerosenescenario because of greater reliance on imports, resulting in its use as a fuel for tankers. Thenext important energy carrier is HSD as an energy carrier for transports. The use of natural gasmarks one important possibility for environmental improvements. The reduction of flaring couldlead to a considerable reduction in energy use and emission of air pollutants. Other energy carri-ers used in a smaller degree are fuel gas, hardcoal and coke. Fuel gas and hardcoal have a highershare in the LPG scenario because of their use as energy carriers in fractionating plants and forpower plants.

9.1.3 Profiles for the Production of LPG and Kerosene in India, the Mixed Productionand Data for Europe

The energy use is shown in Table 9.1 in three sections: The total primary energy used for theproduct including its energy content, the energy consumption for fuels and losses and the energycontent of the burnt fuels. The production of SKO, LPG and diesel oil consumes 17.7%, 18.2%and 9.2% of the fuels energy content respectively. In comparison with the values for Europeandiesel oil, the energy use for kerosene in India is higher. The reason is the inclusion of longtransports in the LCI. The inclusion of imports leads to a higher average energy use than a sce-nario with exclusive domestic production. The total losses in the life cycle, that is the differencebetween used fuels and used energy as shown in Table 9.1, amounts to 1%.

The values for the material use differed only a little between solely Indian products and the sce-nario including imports. But the differences seem to the result of different estimations for theuse in processing facilities. About 7 to 9 litres of water are used to produce one kg of kerosene

LPGFuel oil23.8%

HSD15.7%

Fuel gas14.5%

Natural gas39.0%

Hardcoal5.1%

Coke2.0%

Figure 9.2: Use of different fuels for the supply of LPG

Kerosene

Fuel oil35.6%

HSD14.5%

Fuel gas9.0% Natural gas

37.4%

Hardcoal1.9%

Coke1.5%

Figure 9.3: Use of different fuels for the supply of SKO

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

or LPG respectively. While 8 to 15 grams of steel and 3 to 4 grams of cement are consumed perkg of kerosene and LPG.

Effluents are discharged on an average of 9 litres for kerosene and 6 litres for LPG. This differ-ence is caused by different figures for the international and the Indian production. Another rea-son is the lower use for LPT production in fractionating plants. The values for water pollutantsfor kerosene sold in India and diesel oil produced in Europe are on a comparable level, exclud-ing the value for TDS. The reason might be the non-investigation of this indicator for the Indianrefineries because of lack of data. The total value for oil & grease is much smaller if exports areexcluded. This highlights the significance of tanker transports discharges to the total sum ofpollutants for the life cycle.

The amount of air pollutants released is similar for kerosene and diesel oil. SO2 and NOX areincreased considerably if imports are included. About 3.3 grams NOX are emitted during thesupply of 1 kg fuel to the consumer. The emissions of CO and NMVOC for the European sce-nario are only half as high as the Indian values. The total amount of greenhouse gases, calcu-lated as CO2 eq, is 743 g for 1 kg of either fuels.

Kerosene imports represent a greater proportion to total consumption than is the case for LPGconsumption. Thus the results for this fuel are influenced in a greater degree by deviations be-tween the Indian and the international production. Main differences between the mixed produc-tion and the only Indian production are caused by the necessary transports to import the petro-leum products. Most of the values for other indicators are on the same level, if it is consideredthat differences might also be caused by different methodologies for the LCI in India andEurope.

9.1.4 Comparison of the ProfilesFigure 9.4 compares the environmental burdens related to the energy content of the fuel for thespecific indicator. The data used is given in Table 9.1 for one GJ of the product used in India(including imports). If the bar rises to the left, this marks an advantage for SKO. The land use,for example, is about 90% higher for LPG than the comparable level for SKO.

The direct comparison shows an advantage to LPG in most of the investigated indicators. Theenergy used in the production of LPG is a little higher than this for kerosene due to the differentallocation used for the products in the refining step and the higher energy use for the extractionof natural gas. Steel is used in greater quantities in LPG production with the need for cylinders.Water pollutants are released in higher quantity during the production of kerosene. This is be-cause negligible emissions of effluents are associated with the production of LPG in fractionat-ing plants. Release of oil & grease and SO2 occurs in the main during transportation by tankers.Accordingly the volumes are higher in the kerosene scenario. The use of chemicals and thehigher emissions of NMVOC in the SKO profile are linked with the greater pollution due tocrude exploitation onshore. Waste is produced in a higher amount accompanying crude oilprocessing due to the development of BSM.

In this provisional assessment of the impacts, LPG seems to be more environmentally friendlythan kerosene. The overall advantage could be reversed if the full effects of the production ofsteel and cement for the fuels are included in the LCI. With the inclusion of this the horizontalanalysis for the production of LPG and kerosene gives no clear preference for one of the fuels.

A detailed LCA must compare advantages and disadvantages for different indicators in a morespecific way. Several mechanisms are available for the weighting of the different forms of im-pact. One alternative is the detailed discussion of environmental impacts leading to an evalua-

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

tion. The impact, for example of a specific emission of BOD, is described and the author at-tempts to evaluate this impact against another one, for example the emission of particulates.

Primary energy

Energy

Fuels

Water

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Cement

Chemicals

Effluents

BOD

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TDS

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LPG (% more) SKO (% more)

Primary energy

Energy

Fuels

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Figure 9.4: Comparison of the environmental burdens for LPG and kerosene

Another alternative is the standardisation of the results. The results for every indicator aremultiplied by a parameter specific weighting factor reflecting the environmental hazards fordifferent environmental themes (e.g. global warming or human toxicity). These factors are often

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

considered in relation to national standards for ambient air or goals for the water quality. An-other possibility for estimating these factors is a comparison of the emissions caused specificallyfrom this production with the total emissions in a country or globally. The results of the multi-plication are summed to produce one environmental index that can be used to compare be-tween the different product variants (BERG ET AL. 1995).

9.2 Horizontal Analysis for Cooking in DhanawasTable 9.4 shows the environmental profile for the six cooking scenarios in Dhanawas. The meanprocess shows a possible normal scenario. The two processes optimum and worst-case coverthe range of possible results due to the great uncertainties in the LCI for the cooking. The envi-ronmental impacts due to the cooking and the supply of the fuels are calculated with the datadescribed in the LCI. The table shows the calculated values for all quantifiable indicators in ascenario for the supply of 1 GJ useful heat for cooking.

The scenarios for cooking in India were compared with three scenarios for cooking in Germany.The results for these scenarios are shown in Table 9.5. These scenarios are defined using datafrom the standard data set of TEMIS 2.1. Information was available for cooking with town-gas,with propane gas in cylinders and with electricity. The values for the efficiency were changedbecause the original claimed to be 65% for gas stoves and 100% for electric cooking, did notappear to be reliable (TEMIS 2.1).

The German standard (DIN EN 30) prescribes an efficiency of more than 58% for gas stoves.The gas stoves are estimated to have an efficiency of 64% (like the mean stove in the Indianscenario). The efficiency of electric stoves is standardised (DIN 44547) at not less than 43% or53% depending on whether the cooking starts with a cold or a warm plate2. The type of vesselsused and other parameters have a big influence on the test results. The efficiency of new stovesin this test is normally ranges from 60% to 70%. The electric stove is estimated to have an effi-ciency of 65% (DIN 1979, 1990; KIEL 1995).

Estimates for different types of cooking are also given in the Environmental Manual (EM1995). The results for cooking with natural gas, LPG, kerosene, biogas and wood as calculatedby this program are shown in Table 9.5. The estimates for the biogas stove are the authors ownusing data from the gas stove and the data available for biogas production. The emission of CO2

due to the burning of renewable fuels (biogas, wood) is not considered in the results. The datado not refer to a specific country. Furtheron they are termed as an international scenario. Thedata quality is preliminary. Thus the results of this calculation are not very reliable. The resultsof the horizontal analysis for India, the German cooking scenarios and the data given by EM(1995) are described, analysed and compared in the following sections.

9.2.1 Share of Cooking in the Total ResultsFigure 9.5 gives the share of direct air pollutant emissions released during cooking as a percent-age of the total emissions during the life cycle. About 40% of NOX are emitted during thecooking. Particulates and SO2 are emitted in only a negligible share of the total emissions for theLPG life cycle. But kerosene cooking, depending on the different cookstove estimates, producesat this stage about half of its total emissions. The emission of SO2 is affected only by the sulphurcontent of the fuel. Thus there are no differences for the different scenarios of cooking with onefuel.

2 The efficiency describes the energy use for heating up water from 20ºC to 100ºC.

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

Table 9.4: Environmental profile for the cooking with LPG and kerosene in Dhanawas

Unit Matrix field LPG-optimum LPG-mean LPG-worst-case SKO-optimum SKO-mean SKO-worst-caseEnergy use Energy use (MJ) A-1..4 1,641 1,847 1,970 1,839 2,179 2,802Materials Water (g) B.1 224,000 252,000 269,000 352,000 417,000 536,000

Steel (g) B.2 473 529 562 377 434 538Cement (g) B.3 119 134 143 94 111 143Chemicals (g) B.4 115 130 139 182 216 277

Water Effluents (g) C.1 178,500 200,800 214,200 339,100 401,900 516,700pollution BOD (g) C.2 0.43 0.49 0.52 0.55 0.66 0.84

COD (g) C.3 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.6 3.1 4.0Phenol (g) C.4 0.0026 0.0030 0.0032 0.0042 0.0050 0.0064TDS (g) C.5 9.9 11 12 11 13 16TSS (g) C.6 0.90 1.01 1.08 1.15 1.37 1.76Oil & grease (g) C.7 5.5 6.2 6.6 12 15 19

Air SO2 (g) D.1 92 103 110 284 336 432pollution NOX (g) D.2 140 180 216 188 276 390

CO (g) D.3 126 830 1,406 250 1,093 5,501PM (g) D.4 11 12 14 19 30 291CH4 (g) D.5 106 120 129 132 178 256NMVOC (g) D.5 326 434 486 507 813 1318N20 (g) D.5 0.62 1.14 2.17 0.66 1.85 5.11CO2 (g) D.5 108,400 122,000 130,100 132,300 156,800 201,700CO2 eq (g) D.5 116,300 134,000 145,200 143,700 176,200 243,600

Waste Cuttings (g) E.1 885 995 1,061 915 1,085 1,395Waste (g) E.2 65 73 78 90 106 137Ashes (g) E.2 396 445 475 156 185 238

Other Land use (m²) F.1 0.32 0.35 0.37 0.24 0.27 0.32

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Table 9.5: Comparison of the profile for the mean cooking scenarios in India with data for cooking possibilities in other studies

LPG-mean-In

SKO-mean-In

Gas-cooking-GER

Propane-cooking-

GER

El-cooking-GER

Kerosene-int

Gas-int LPG-int Biogas-int Wood-int Wood-improved-

intEnergy use 1,847 2,179 1,818 1,928 5,044 2,847 1,869 2,304 1,962 7,034 3,768Steel 529 434 6,271 5,797 8,144 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.Cement 134 111 280 69 1,850 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.SO2 103 336 24 106 232 1,088 9 466 462 287 154NOx 180 276 132 164 375 326 103 407 291 565 303CO 830 1,093 266 262 335 381 135 182 161 1,916 1,026PM 12 30 4.5 9.6 37.3 87 1 59 29 2,673 1,432CH4 120 178 537 77 784 118 462 94 46 229 122NMVOC 434 813 26 56 36 97 30 77 27 231 124N20 1.14 1.85 4.7 1.5 12 6.0 2.0 3.3 2.3 87.0 46.6CO2 122,000 156,800 99,513 125,300 310,000 213,000 93,854 151,900 10,751 31,659 16,960CO2 eq 134,000 176,200 106,700 126,500 321,800 222,400 107,500 159,700 15,607 73,665 39,464Waste 73 106 420 478 21,847 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.Land use 0.35 0.27 0.02 0.03 1.00 0.52 0.03 0.42 20.27 0.17 0.09

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LPG-optimum LPG-meanAAAAAAAAALPG-worst-case AAA

AAASKO-optimum SKO-mean SKO-worst-case

Figure 9.5: Share of cookstove emissions and other impacts among the total impacts during the life cycle

Emissions of methane are significant in the upper part of the life cycle. Only 20% to 30% of thetotal NMVOC’s emitted by both LPG and kerosene over their product life cycle is releasedduring cooking. For emissions of CO, CO2, N2O and CO2 equivalents, cooking is the criticalstage in the life cycle. But as much as 20% of greenhouse gas equivalents are caused by theproduction of the fuels. The use of steel and land is determined by the results until the deliveryto the household. For all other indicators (e.g. water pollutants) the emissions are prior to deliv-ery to the household (and therefore the cooking stage).

9.2.2 Environmental Profile for CookingTo produce 1,000 MJ of useful heat for cooking between 2,802 MJ and 1,641 MJ of primaryenergy is used. The following results are valid for the mean cooking scenarios with LPG andkerosene respectively. The full results are shown in Table 9.4. The overall efficiency for cookingis in the range of 54% and 46%. About 2,158 MJ of fuels are burnt in the kerosene cookingscenario. This is 99% of the total energy use. The value for LPG is 1,830 MJ. LPG and kero-sene have a share of 85.4% and 85.8% of the fuels used in this scenario. The most importantauxiliary energy carrier in the life cycle is natural gas with a use of 104 MJ and 115 MJ for LPGand kerosene respectively. Fuel oil, diesel oil and fuel gas are other energy carriers used for pro-ducing the fuels. The total amount of other fuels burnt is 267 MJ and 306 MJ respectively forthe LPG and kerosene production.

Cooking is connected with the discharge of 201 litres and 401 litres of effluents for the respec-tive fuels. For example 2.2 and 3.1 grams of COD are discharged from LPG and kerosene. Atotal of 6.2 grams and 15 grams of oil & grease are discharged as a result of cooking with LPGand kerosene respectively. Burning of different energy carriers leads to 134 kg and 176 kg ofCO2 eq emissions in the two mean scenarios for LPG and kerosene respectively. Cooking is alsolinked with the discharge of 1 kg cuttings and 73 g or 106 g of other wastes. The total land usefor the necessary installations is 0.35 m² and 0.27 m² for cooking with LPG and kerosene re-spectively.

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9.2.3 Comparison of the Quantifiable Impacts for Cooking in DhanawasThe environmental impacts of the six cooking scenarios for India are compared in Figure 9.7.The results of the cooking scenarios are standardised by division by the factor that is shown be-neath the indicator. It is only possible to compare the results for one indicator. Cross indicatorcomparisons are not possible.

The results for the LPG and kerosene scenarios can be compared as follows. Cooking with LPGis better than this with kerosene with regard to many indicators even if the worst-case scenariois compared with optimum use of kerosene. These indicators are: Water use, chemicals, efflu-ents, SO2, PM, CH4, NMVOC, CO2, wastes, and all water pollutants except TDS.

The other results depend on the different cooking scenarios. In these cases the advantage of onepossibility when comparing the mean scenarios might alternate to a disadvantage if the worstcase is compared with the optimum use of the other option. Cooking with kerosene consumesless steel and cement if the mean scenarios are compared. Comparing the remaining indicatorsresults in advantages for the LPG mean scenario in comparison to the mean kerosene scenario.But this result is reversed if an optimised use of kerosene is compared with the worst case LPGscenario.

A preliminary comparison of cooking with LPG and kerosene results in clear advantages tocooking with LPG if the most likely mean scenario is assumed. But this result depends signifi-cantly on the uncertain values estimated for the efficiency and emissions from the used cook-stoves. A more reliable of the emissions and energy efficiency resulting from the cookstove isrequired. Similarly a further investigation of raw materials used in the life cycle of the two fuelsmight suing the overall results.

9.2.4 Comparison of the CostsFigure 9.6 shows the individual costs connected with the cooking scenarios. The costs for stoveand cylinder are depreciated over a 10 years period with an interest rate of 4%. The costs de-pend mainly on the efficiency of the used cookstove. Cooking with kerosene bought on rationcards through the PDS is the cheapest possibility for the consumers. It is less than half the priceof the two alternatives. For the mean scenarios cooking with LPG and kerosene bought on thefree market the costs are virtually identical. Using the more efficient cookstoves makes LPGcheaper. Cooking with the least efficient kerosene cookstoves makes this possibility the mostexpensive one.

100

150

200

250

300

350

Optimum Mean Worst case

RsLPG-PDSSKO-PDSSKO-free-market

Figure 9.6: Costs for stove and fuel in the different cooking scenarios with an output of 1,000 MJ of useful heat

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Energy use500

Water100000

Steel100

Cement50

Chemicals50

Effluents100000

BOD0.2

COD1

Phenol0.001

TDS5

TSS0.5

Oil & grease5

SO2100

NOX100

CO250

PM10

CH450

NMVOC200

N200.5

CO250000

CO2 eq50000

Cutt ings500

Waste50

Land use0.1

(Amount in MJ, g or m² multiplied with factor below the indicator)

LPG-optimum LPG-mean AAAAAA LPG-worst-case

AAAAAA SKO-optimum SKO-mean SKO-worst-case

Figure 9.7: Comparison of the environmental impacts of the six cooking scenarios

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

9.2.5 Horizontal Analysis for Qualitative IndicatorsQualitative indicators can not be aggregated over the life cycle. It is only possible to point outthe main aspects for both fuels. The social and the economic impacts are of the same form oforder because the production stages are either identical or very similar. The main aspects can bedescribed and compared as follows:

• Flora and fauna {F-2}: Potentially impacts can occur in all stages of the life cycle. Themain impacts are caused however by the exploitation of the petroleum resources, a resultof the large areas of land and sea involved. The discharge of residuals during the pro-duction also makes an impact.

• Noise {F-3}: It is emitted during all stages of the upper life cycle (this includes all stagesexcept for cooking). The main effects on the public appear to occur with the transporta-tion by trucks through they have the biggest influence on populated areas. There arehigher emissions of noise when cooking with kerosene.

• Temperature {F-4}: Main impacts are caused by flaring and discharge of cooling water.

• Health risks {G-1}: All stages of the life cycle provide potential health risks for employ-ees with the regular duties at the work place and with accidents. The public are affectedwith the emission of air and water pollutants. But cooking is the most important stagebecause considerable emissions take place near to the possible acceptor. The health riskdepends on the ventilation of the kitchen. Cooking with kerosene is eventually connectedwith higher risks due to the higher emissions of the cookstove. Another important step isthe transport because of the high rate of accidents and the direct contribution to emis-sions in living areas.

• Gender specific shares {G-2}: The main aspect for this point is the cooking. But bothtypes of cooking share the same characteristics in this respect.

• Time budget {G-3}: Cooking is the critical stage. Using LPG takes less time to cook dueto the better performance and the fuel supply to the household’s door.

• Product use {G-4}: Cooking with LPG is connected with several advantages in compari-son to cooking with kerosene. The LPG distribution seems to be easier than that of theliquid fuel, because it is stored in cylinders. Kerosene requires several refills before it canbe used. A disadvantage of the transport cylinders is their heavy weight, this disadvan-tage falls on the employees of the distributor. The use of cylinders also involves addi-tional transport with the return of the bottles to the plant.

• Cultural plurality {G-5}: Both types of cooking are incompatible with some traditionalways of preparing a meal, but there do not seem to be specific differences between them.

• Accidents {G-6}: Accidents can happen during all stages of the life cycle. Transportseems to be the most hazardous step. Accidents during exploitation, for example blow-outs, are connected with hazards for the environment and economic losses. For bothtypes of cooking, accidents are possible. A main problem for cooking with LPG areleaks in the installation that may lead to a gas explosion. Kerosene can be spilled duringcooking and thus catch fire. This may lead to injuries of the cook. To point out the morehazardous variant is impossible.

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

• Costs {H-1}: Individual costs are compared in chapter 9.2.4. Both types of cooking areconnected with high costs for the Indian society due to the necessity of imports and thesubsidy system.

• Subsidies {H-2}: Both types of fuel are subsidised. But for many Indian people the accessto the subsidised fuels is limited due to several constrictions. The amount of kerosenepurchasable on a ration card is not sufficient to meet the average demand of a family.Poor people can not afford the initial investment costs involved. And for the poorest theaccess is further restricted, if they cannot provide proof of legal residence. Access tosubsidised LPG is exceptionally difficult. It is only delivered to larger cities. The invest-ment costs are even higher, and the waiting time for an LPG connection is very long.Rich people can shorten the time by connections or corruption. The subsidy of LPG isgreater than that of kerosene.

• International co-operation and dependence {H-3}: The indigenous petroleum productiondoes not meet the Indian demand. Thus imports are necessary. This relies to interna-tional co-operation and dependence. The dependence will increase in the future due tothe opening of the Indian market to foreign investors. Kerosene is imported in a higheramount than LPG.

• Market concentration {H-4}: The Indian market was until recently state controlled. Thisleads to a high market concentration with only a few companies. These companies donot compete on the market. This will change in the future due to opening of the marketfor private enterprises. This opening might be more difficult in the case of LPG becauseof the higher initial efforts necessary to start an independent distribution system.

• Couple products {H-5}: Natural gas and crude oil are couple products during the exploi-tation. A variation of the ratio is possible only in small boundaries. The production in re-fineries and fractionating plants is a mix of several couple products. Kerosene stands inconcurrence to the more important HSD, thus the amount produced is influenced by thedemand for this fuel. A rising demand could lead to a shortage of HSD. LPG does nothave such an important couple product.

It is difficult to evaluate and outweigh the different types of qualitative indicators. Table 9.6shows a subjective evaluation of the positive and negative effects for both fuels. It points out theindicators connected with an advantage for one of the two types of cooking. Indicators notshown in this table are assumed to have nearly the same positive and negative effects. As de-scribed before, many impacts are nearly on the same level. Thus the results of the table shall notbe misinterpreted as a clear preference for LPG.

Table 9.6: Main advantages in the comparison of qualitative indicators for the two fuels

Advantage of cooking with kerosene Advantage of cooking with LPGLower subsidies Lower health risks

Lower market concentration Less noiseBetter time budgetEasier product use

No concurrence couple products

9.2.6 Comparison of the Results with other LCI data for CookingThe environmental impacts of cooking in India (mean scenarios for LPG and kerosene), inGermany and in an undefined (international) country are compared in Figure 9.8. The calcula-

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

tions for Germany and the international scenario were described in chapter 9.2. Table 9.5 givesthe full data. The German and international results are not totally comparable with the results forIndia because the authors might have made different assumptions in the goal definition, e.g. forcut-off criteria. TEMIS 2.1 gives data for the energy use and the emissions of air pollutants dueto the production of steel and other materials. These data are included in the scenario for Ger-many. The figures show the results with regard to energy use, materials, wastes and emissionsof air pollutants. They are standardised with the factor given beneath each indicator to compre-hend the results in one figure. All indicators except energy and land use are expressed in grams(EM 1995; TEMIS 2.1).

The energy consumption for the cooking with fossil fuels and with biogas is on the same level.The database EM gives a higher figure for the cooking with kerosene than calculated in the sce-nario for India. The reason is a low efficiency estimate of the cookstove. Cooking with electric-ity consumes much more energy because of the non-efficient steps of energy conversation. Theenergy consumption for cooking with wood in traditional and improved cookstoves is also rela-tively high because of their low efficiency.

The use of steel and cement in the scenarios calculated for Germany is much greater. But thereason is probably a different estimation of the necessary consumption. Besides, the dischargedwastes seem to be higher, but the indicator waste is not directly comparable. For the Germandata it contains a considerable amount of residuals produced due to the treatment of flue gasesin combustion devices.

The comparison regarding the air pollutants gives a heterogeneous picture. The emission of SO2

is calculated by EM with a higher value than for India. The other international cooking possi-bilities are also linked with relatively high SO2 emissions. A possible reason might be differentestimates for the sulphur content of the fuels. The emissions of NOX are given in a higheramount by EM than calculated for India. A comparison between India and Germany indicatesrelatively high values for cooking with electricity in Germany.

Carbon monoxide is emitted in a high amount by the Indian cookstoves in comparison to theother cookstoves. Only the emissions of wood cookstoves are of a comparable figure. The rea-son for the high values in India is the high estimation for the cookstove emissions. Particulatesare emitted about 10 times more by cooking with wood than with the other possibilities. Theemissions in India and Germany are on a comparable level. Cooking with electricity is connectedwith two times more emissions of PM than cooking with fossil fuels.

The emission of methane is calculated by TEMIS 2.1 and EM with a higher amount than in theIndian scenario. NMVOC are emitted in a high amount in India. Not all the emissions consid-ered for this result are included in the data of EM and TEMIS 2.1. Missing for example is anestimation for distribution losses and for flaring. N2O is emitted in relatively high amounts by thetwo wood cookstoves. Cooking with electricity is also responsible for higher emissions thancooking with fossil fuels.

The highest emissions of CO2 are linked with the use of electricity for cooking. Cooking withbiogas and wood results in relatively low emissions because the fuels are renewable. The directemissions from burning these fuels are not considered for this indicator. A comparison of thecomprehended emissions of greenhouse gases shows the highest value for electric cooking inGermany. Fossil fuels belong to the next group. Cooking with biomass is linked with the lowestemissions of CO2 eq.

The land use figure is relatively high for cooking with biogas. But the assumption made by EMseems to be too high. The land use for forest is not considered because the wood is assumed tobe a residual. The land use of the Indian possibilities is high in comparison to the values forGermany. But these scenarios include more distribution steps with a high specific land use.

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

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6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Energy use1,000

Steel2,000

Cement200

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NOx100

CO200

PM250

CH4

100

NMVOC100

N2010

CO250,000

CO2 eq

50,000

Waste100

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0.5

(Amount in MJ, g or m² multiplied with factor below the indicator)

LPG-mean-In SKO-mean-InAAAAAA Gas-cooking-GER

AAAA Propane-cooking-GER AA

AA El-cooking-GER AAAA Kerosene-int

AAAAAA Gas-int

AAAAAA LPG-int

AAAAAA Biogas-int

AAAAAA

Wood-int AAAAAA

Wood-improved-int

Figure 9.8: Comparison of environmental impacts for different cooking scenarios

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

For many indicators cooking in India is linked with higher emissions than the possibilities ofcooking with gas in Germany. This has several reasons. First the degree of transports involvedin the Indian scenario. And the less environmentally friendly ways energy is consumed in theupstream and downstream sectors. The LCI for India also includes some emissions that are notincluded in the data for Germany. These are for example the flaring and the losses during distri-bution. But cooking with gas or kerosene in India is more environmentally friendly than thecommon cooking with electricity used by the majority of households in Germany.

The comparison of different studies demonstrates the high variations existing for different LCA.The values calculated with EM do not seem to be reliable in all points. It is also stated in theprogram that the data quality is preliminary.

9.3 Total Environmental Burden of Cooking with LPG and Kerosene in IndiaThe total environmental burden caused by cooking with LPG and kerosene in Indian householdsis shown in Table 9.7. The impacts were calculated with the mean cooking scenarios and thedata for the availability of kerosene and LPG in 1992/93. It is assumed that the available fuelsare consumed wholly for cooking. The environmental impacts are not restricted to India. Someof the impacts (due to imports) occur in foreign countries.

Table 9.7: Total environmental burden of cooking with LPG and kerosene in India

Indicator Unit Matrix field Kerosene totaluse in India

LPG total use inIndia

Sum

Primary energy (TJ) A-1..4 490,376 157,141 647,518Water (MT) B.1 93.8 21.4 115.2Steel (t) B.2 97,538 45,011 142,549Cement (t) B.3 24,993 11,424 36,416Chemicals (t) B.4 48,497 11,058 59,555Effluents (MT) C.1 90.4 17.1 107.5BOD (t) C.2 148 42 189COD (t) C.3 695 186 880Phenol (t) C.4 1.1 0.3 1.4TDS (t) C.5 2,839 951 3,789TSS (t) C.6 308 86 394Oil & grease (t) C.7 3,328 524 3,852SO2 (t) D.1 75,630 8,775 84,405NOX (t) D.2 62,186 15,300 77,486CO (t) D.3 245,890 70,607 316,497PM (t) D.4 6,744 1,058 7,802CH4 (t) D.5 39,955 10,233 50,188NMVOC (t) D.5 182,937 36,900 219,837N20 (t) D.5 416 97 513CO2 (MT) D.5 35.3 10.4 45.7CO2 eq (MT) D.5 39.7 11.4 51.1Cuttings (t) E.1 244,083 84,683 328,766Waste (t) E.2 23,915 6,245 30,160Land use (km²) F.1 61 30 91

Table 9.7 shows that kerosene is responsible for the main share of impacts due to cooking withfossil fuels because the amount of used kerosene is higher. Cooking in India is connected withthe use of 36 thousand tonnes cement per year. Effluents are discharged of an amount of 108

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9 Horizontal Analysis and Evaluation of the Results

million tonnes per year and the sulphur dioxide emissions as a result of cooking with fossil fuelsare calculated to be about 84 thousand tonnes.

Table 9.8 compares the emission of greenhouse gases emitted by the cooking with the totalemissions in India. The compared figures were not calculated for the same balance room. Thefigures for cooking with fossil fuels include emissions of greenhouse gases outside India (importof fuels). The total emissions shown above are calculated for India. Thus the values for cookingdo not stand for a share on the total emissions. But the values can be compared to classify theenvironmental burden caused by the cooking with LPG and kerosene.

The emissions of carbon dioxide due to cooking are as high as 3.8% of the total emissions. Thecomparison for other gases shows 0.9%, 0.32% and 0.64% for CO, methane and N2O respec-tively. The share of LPG and kerosene of the total energy consumption in India amounts to 3%.Thus the found values are reliable considering that other energy carriers are also burnt in the lifecycle (Chapter 1.2; TEDDY 1994).

Table 9.8: Comparison of greenhouse gas emissions due to cooking with total emissions in India (TEDDY 1994)

Unit Cooking withfossil fuels

Total emissions in India Comparison of cooking with thetotal emissions

CO t 316,497 35,200,000 0.90%CH4 t 50,188 15,700,000 0.32%N20 t 513 80,000 0.64%CO2 MT 46 1,191 3.84%

9.4 Uncertainties of the ResultsThe results are determined considerably by the LCI for the cooking which is based only on afew studies, with results varying over wide range. Thus this seems to be the feature in the LCIwith the least reliable results. Secondly there is considerable uncertainty regarding the resourceextraction. The third main factor liable to uncertainties in the results is the inventory for neces-sary transport devices and distances. Changes in any of these aspects will influence the total re-sults in an unpredictable manner.

The LCI for the other parts of the life cycle seem to be reasonably reliable. Further investiga-tions here can be expected to lead only to small corrections in the results. The most reliable in-dicators in the overall horizontal analysis are energy use and emission of CO2. The variation inthe overall results appears to be high enough to lead to a shift in the overall evaluation. Thecomparison of LPG and kerosene shows at present based on this LCI an advantage for LPG.But the potential impacts of both possibilities are similar enough that new results in the LCImight alter this overall evaluation.

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10 Outlook

Further new results may emerge after comparison with the study on biomass fuels which is notyet complete. These results might lead to new objectives for energy policy in India. But the op-portunities for change are restricted. Rising the availability of kerosene or LPG is limited due tothe missing foreign exchange for imports. Increasing the exploitation of indigenous resources isalso difficult. Chances followed up by the policy are the extended usage of natural gas and thereduction of wasteful flaring.

The study in hand probably for the first time investigates parts of the Indian energy sector bymeans of a life cycle assessment. The data found is useful for further studies on the environ-mental impact of products. The data for refineries and transports is reliable. Further investiga-tion surrounding the exploitation of petroleum resources would be useful. Another goal for fu-ture studies is the investigation of material production processes in India. This data should beincluded in future LCI.

The investigation of environmental impacts in a life cycle inventory in a developing countryfaces the same problems as the first LCI in Europe or the USA. The difficulties to gain a suffi-cient database are the most relevant problems. Comprehensive data for each sectors is not avail-able. Data has to be compiled from information obtained on an individual basis from each com-pany in the sector. Employees of the companies are very uncertain what information can behanded over for public consumption. The hierarchical structure in state controlled enterprisesincreased the problems by causing impediments in gaining information from the people con-cerned. Reliable measurements were available only for a limited number of indicators. Otherpollutants seldom were subject to regulations and thus measurements do not exist.

Besides, it is questionable how far a life cycle assessment is a useful instrument for the productpolicy in a developing country. The India people often do not have the choice between differentalternatives which are more or less environmentally friendly. Political decisions are influencedprimarily by the availability of the different products in the country. The room for changes isvery small. Most consumers do not consider the eco-friendliness of a product. For them theproduct use and the availability, with consideration of their income, are decisive. A look on en-vironmental pollution is important in the immediate surrounding. In the case of cooking thismeans the direct emissions of the cookstove.

Political decisions of international organisations, for example the World Bank, might be influ-enced by studies on the environmental-friendliness of different options. These organisations of-ten to a considerable extent determine the policy of a developing country. One problem whileusing the results of an LCA for their policy might be the overvaluation of global problems, e.g.greenhouse gas emissions, in comparison to local problems.

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THE ECONOMIC TIMES 1995/01: Subsidy on Petro Products shoots up to Rs 8,479 crore. Page1, New Delhi 23.1.1995

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ENVIRONMENT Vol. 13: 407-412