Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik

Herausgeber / Editors:

He lmbrecht Bre in ig , Thomas Herbst, Eva Mar ia Manske, A lbrecht Neubert,

Gerhard Sti lz , Günter Walch

Beirat / Advisory Board : ^

Susan Bassnett (Warwick), Eckhard Breit inger (Bayreuth), Ernst Burgschmidt (Wurzburg), Christopher Cand l in (Sydney), Charles F i l lmore (Berkeley), Hans Walter Gabler (München),

Sherr i l l Grace (Vancouver), K laus Hansen (Berlin), Franz M . K u n a (Klagenfurt), Geoffrey Leech (Lancaster), Meenakshi Mukherjee (New Delhi), John Sinc la i r (Birmingham), Chr ist ian Kar l Stead

(Auckland), Jan Svartvik (Lund), Peter Trudg i l l (Norwich), Gerald Vizenor (Berkeley)

Langenscheidt Berlin · München · Leipzig · Wien · Zürich · New York

415 104 296 900 16

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t e l j i i h r l i e h .

erlas: I . angensc l . c i d t K G G r e l l e s t r a f i e 2 8 - 3 0 I 0 8 2 7 B e r l i n

T e l e f o n (UM)) 7 8 0 0 0 2 - 0

C I 9 9 I I n l . a n g e n s c h e i d t K G . B e r l i n u n d M u r i e l l e ,

Z e i l s e h r i f l Die d iese l

e i i l l i i I l t en B c i l r ä ; i d i r h e b c r r e c h l l i c h geschü tz t , l b e r s c l z u n g . N a c h d r u c k - a u c h v o n A b b i l d u n g e n - . \ er \ ί«·ΙΠΐI i ίμι ι ι i -^er a u f p h o t o m e c h a n i s c h e m o d e r ä h n l i c h e n ) W e g e o d e r i m M a g n e t t o n v e r f a h r e n . V o r t r a g , K i m k - u n d F e r n s e h s e n d u n g s o w i e S p c i c h c r u n g in D a t e n v e r a r b e i t u n g s a n l a g e n - a u c h auszugswe ise - h l e i h e n v o r h e h a l l e n l o t o k o p i e n f ü r d e n p e r s ö n l i c h e n u n d s o n s t i g e n e i g e n e n G e b r a u c h d ü r l en n u r v o n e i n z e l n e n B e i t r ä g e n o d e r T e i l e n d a r a u s als h i n z c l k o p i c i he rges te l l t w e r d e n .

Z u s c h r i f t e n a l l e r A r t u n d K i n s e n d u n g e n e r h i t t e n w i r n u r an d e n V e r l a g . I n v e r l a n g t e n M a n u s k r i p t e n , f ü r d i e k e i n e H a f t u n g ü b e r n o i n -i i i e n w i r d , w o l l e n Sie h i t t e R ü c k p o r t o h e i f ü g e n .

V e r a n t w o r t l i c h f ü r d e n r e d a k t i o n e l l e n I n h a l t : P ro f . D r . H e l m b r e c h t B r e i n i g ( K r l a n g e n - P s ü r n b c r g ) . P ro f . Dr . T h o m a s H e r b s t ( K r l a n g e n - N ü r n b e r g ) . P ro f . D r . Kva M a r i a M a n s k e ( I r e i b u r g ) , P ro f . D r . A l b r e c h t N e u b e r l ( L e i p z i g ) , P ro f . D r . G e r h a r d S t i l z ( T ü b i n ­g e n ) , P r o f . Dr . G ü n t e r W a l c h ( B e r l i n ) .

M i t N a m e n g e z e i c h n e t e B e i t r ä g e g e b e n d i e M e i n u n g des Ver fassers w i e ­d e r .

B e s t e l l u n g e n e r b e t e n an I h r e B u c h h a n d l u n g o d e r an d e n \ e r l a g . A b b e s t e l l u n g e n m ü s s e n 6 W o c h e n v o r A b l a u f des K a l e n d e r j a h r e e r f o l g e n .

B e z u g s p r e i s : J ä h r l i c h (4 He f t e ) D M 7 2 , - . IV ·

sen u n d M e h r w e r t s t e u e r .

V e r a n t w o r t l i c h e r R e d a k t e u r : D r . H e l m u t l i n d e i s e n . M o c k a u e r S t r aße l 18, I S / 9 . ( Μ Γ > 7 L e i p z i g

A n z e i g e n p r e i s e : Z u r Ze i t ge l t en Pre ise u n d B e d i n g u n g e n d e r A n z e i -

g e n p r e i s l i s t e I v o m I. (). 1 9 9 1 . V e r a n t w o r t l i c h f ü r d e n A n z e i g e n t e i l :

B r i g i t t e Pasch M ü n c h e n .

Zeitschrift fur Anglistik und Amerikanistik 4 2 . J A H R G A N G 1 9 9 4

Jahresinhaltsverzeichnis

He f t Seite

B E R G I E N , A N G E L I K A . O n the His tor i ca l Backg r ound o f Eng l i sh Punctuat ion 3 2 4 3 B E Y E R , M A N F R E D . J o h n Osborne : Traditionssti fter einer Dramaturg ie des

Z o r n s 3 1 9 8

B R E I T I N G E R , E C K H A R D . Mongre l i z a t i on versus the Abso lu t i sm o f the Pure -D i e International isierung der kul ture l l en Szenerie u n d die nationall i tera­rische Fachkonzept ion 4 2 9 5

D I S K U S S I O N S F O R U M : Z u m Selbstverständnis der Ang l i s t ik/Amer ikan is t ik i m wiedervere inigten Deutsch land 1 5 4

E S S E R , J Ü R G E N . Z u r Te rmino l og i e u n d Analyse v o n nomina len m^-Sätzen ( "Ge rund i en " ) 1 2 1

E V A N S , P A T R I C K D . T h e Future o f the Past: M a k i n g H is tory out o f N e w Zea land Literature 2 1 2 2

F I T Z M A U R I C E , J A M E S . T h e Narra tor in A p h r a Bchn ' s The Fair Jilt 2 1 3 1

G R A U S T E I N , G O T T F R I E D . Z u Swifts Schreibvarianten. Anstel le einer Fußnote 4 3 2 7

H A B E R M A I E R , S T E F F I . O n Interpreting Bart leby 4 3 5 2

H E R B S T , T H O M A S . W i e w i r d man ein guter Angl ist? - oder: Über den unab­dingbaren Stel lenwert des Lateinischen 1 5 4

K I R S T E N , H A N S . E i n Plädoyer für das G e r u n d i u m 1 1 6

K L A R E R , M A R I O . " T h i s is N o t a Rea l T h i n g " : Repräsentation, Illustration u n d S imu la t i on bei Hen ry James 4 3 4 0

K O R T E , B A R B A R A . D e r Reiseber icht aus anglistischer Sicht : Stand, Tendenzen u n d Desiderate seiner l iteraturwissenschaftl ichen Er fo rschung 4 3 6 4

K R A U T Z , J O A C H I M . Imagery and Sexual Connota t i ons in W i l l i a m Empson 's

Aubade 3 2 3 5

K U E S T E R , M A R T I N . ( Pos t - )Modern Bricolage: Classical M y t h o l o g y in Sheila Watson 's Short Stories 3 2 2 5

LiPKA, L E O N H A R D / S C H M I D , H A N S - J Ö R G . To begin with: degrees o f id iomat ic i ty , textual functions and pragmatic exploitations o f a f ixed expression 1 6

M E Y N , R O L F / S C H E I D I N G , O L I V E R . Treason, Treachery, Betrayal: Pol i t ics,

Ideology, and the Process o f D i s i l lus i onment in the Literature o f the Spanish C i v i l W a r 1 2 7

N A G E L , R A I N E R . Das Wor tb i l dungsmorphem CYBER 2 1 6 3

N Ü N N I N G , A N S G A R . Gender and Narratology. Kategor ien u n d Perspektiven einer feministischen Narra t i v ik 2 1 0 2

O S T E R W A L D E R , H A N S . T h e Litt le Engländern M y t h - k i t t y : the C y c l i c Concep t o f T i m e in Ph i l ip Larkin 's Poetry 2 1 3 9

P R A U S E , T H O M A S . Z u m Prob lem W o r t b i l d u n g u n d Übersetzung. Dargcstl l t an den M o d e l l e n breakout u n d toxic-waste dump 4 3 1 7

S C H E I D I N G , O L I V E R / M E Y N , R O L F . Treason, Teachcry , Betrayal: Pol i t ics,

Ideology, and the Process o f D i s i l l us i onment in the Literature o f the Spanish C i v i l W a r 1 2 7

S C H M I D , H A N S - J Ö R G / L I P K A , L E O N H A R D . To begin with: degrees o f id iomat ic i ty ,

textual functions and pragmatic exploitations o f a f ixed expression 1 6

II

Heft Seite

S C H O P P , J O S E P H C . Charles Scalsficld: der aufgeklärte europäische Re isende als amerikanischer M y t h e n b i l d n c r 3 216

S C H U L Z E R A I N E R . H O W to Express " D i s l i k e " i n W o r d s : A n Investigation into the Metapragmatics o f Eng l i sh 4 306

U N G E R E R , F R I E D R I C H . Basic level concepts and parasitic categorisation: a cogni t ive alternative to convent ional semantic hierarchies 2 148

W A G N E R , B E N N O . " W e K n o w A l l about the Past ..." F r o m M y t h o l o g y to M y t h o g r a p h y in Abor i g ina l Austral ia 4 332

W A G N E R , H A N S - P E T E R . Learn ing to R e a d the Female Body . O n the F u n c t i o n o f Manet ' s Olympia in J o h n Braine 's Room at the Top 1 38

Aus Universitäten und Hochschu len B i e n n i a l Conference o f E A S A (European Assoc iat ion o f Studies on Australia)

at Sitgcs in Oc t obe r 1993 (Adi Wimmer) 2 171

Buchbesprechungen A m e r i c a n D ia lec t Research. E d . by D e n n i s R . Preston (Josef Schmied) 4 387 Anglizismen-Wörterbuch. B d . 1: A - E (Thomas Herbst) 4 384 B a r n i c k c l , K laus -D ie t e r . Falsche Freunde. E i n vergleichendes Wörterbuch

D e u t s c h - E n g l i s c h (Josef Schmied) 1 69 Benne t t , B ruce . A n Austra l ian Compass. Essays o n Place and D i r e c t i o n

i n Austra l ian Literature (Norbert Pilz) 4 406 B u r k e , J o h n . T h e Legend o f Baby D o e (Thomas Hitke) 1 90 B r a d b u r y , M a l c o l m / R u l a n d , R i c h a r d . F r o m Pur i tan ism to Pos tmodern ism.

A H i s t o r y o f A m e r i c a n Literature (Hans-Joachim Lang) 1 78 Ca l l s , C u r t a i n . B r i t i sh and A m e r i c a n W o m e n and the Theater

(James Fitzmaitrice) 4 399 Che lsea H o t e l . A Magaz ine for the Ar ts . V o l . I—IV. Hrsg . von K laus Isele u n d

D i r k Görtier (Thomas Inner) 3 284 C h i t h a m , E d w a r d . E m i l y Brontë. E i n e Lebensbeschreibung (Annegret Maack) 1 73 C o w i c , A . P . / M a c k i n , R . O x f o r d D i c t i onary o f Phrasal Verbs (Thomas Herbst/

Michael Klotz) 4 379 D u b b e r , U l r i k e . D e r englische Universitätsroman der Nachkr iegsze i t

(Rüdiger Imhof) 3 270 D U D E N O x f o r d K le ines Wörterbuch Eng l i sch (Thomas Herbst) 4 383 European Shakespeares. Translat ing Shakespeare in the R o m a n t i c Age .

E d . by D i r k Delabastita and L ieven D ' H u l s t (Raimund Borgmeier) 4 391 Fa i rha l l , James. James Joyce and the Ques t i on o f H is tory (Wolfgang Wicht) 4 411 Fede rman , R a y m o n d . N o w T h e n / N u n denn. Au to . . .B i o . . .Graph i c Poems /

Ged i ch t e - E ine Vers i on meines Lebens. D i e frühen Jahre (Thomas Inner) 1 82 Fremdsprachenunterr i cht i m internationalen Verg le ich: Perspektive 2000.

H r s g . von C laus G n u t z m a n n u.a. (Ursida Karbe) 2 179 G r a m l e y , Stephen/Pätzold, K u r t M i c h a e l . A Survey o f M o d e r n Eng l i sh

(Josef Schmied) 1 59 G i e g e r i ch , H e i n z J . Eng l i sh Phono logy . A n in t roduct ion (Klaus Hansen) 1 65 G i n d i n , James. B r i t i s h F i c t i on in the 1930s. T h e D i sp i r i t i ng Decade

(Stephan Lieske) 2 187 H i s t o r y o f Engl ishes. N e w Me thods and Interpretations o f H is tor i ca l

L inguist ics . E d . by M a t t i R i ssancn , Oss i lhala inen, Ter t tu Neva la inen , I rma Taavitsainen (Josef Schmied) 3 251

III

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H o c y , M i chae l . Patterns o f Lexis in T ex t (Christina Schaffner) 3 254 H o m e , Ph i l ip . H e n r y James and R e v i s i o n (Hans-Joachim Lang) 4 403 K l e i n , Eberhard. Konditionalität in didakt ischen u n d pädagogischen

Grammat i k en des Engl ischen (Wolfgang Thiele) 3 257 K o c h , Stephan. D i c h t u n g als Archäologie. D i e Ly r ik Scamus Heaneys

(Robert F. Garratt) 1 76 Kran t z , Gösta. Learn ing Vocabulary in a Fore ign Language (David Heath) 1 70 Kucster , M a r t i n . F r am ing Truths . Parodie Structures in Contempora ry

Eng l i sh -Canad ian Histor ica l Nove l s (Jutta Zimmermann) 4 405 Lanser, Susan Sniader. Fict ions o f Au tho r i t y . W o m e n Wr i te rs and Narrat ive

V o i c e (Ansgar Nünning) 4 393 Longman Language Act ivator. Hrsg . von De l i a Summers (Michael Klotz) 4 381 M a c D o n a g h , O l i v e r . Jane Austen : R e a l and Imagined W o r l d s

(James Fanning) 1 71 M a c k i n , R . / C o w i e , A . P. O x f o r d D i c t i onary o f Phrasal Verbs

(Thomas Herbst/Michael Klotz) 4 379 M c W i l l i a m s , J o h n P . J r . T h e A m e r i c a n Ep i c , T r a n s f o r m i n g a Genre ,

1770 -1860 (Hans-Joachim Lang) 3 280 M e d i a t i n g Cu l tures . Probleme des Kulturtransfers. Hrsg . von No rbe r t Platz

(Franz Kuna) 3 276 M e n n e c k e , A r n i m . Kolonia les Bewußtsein in den R o m a n e n J . M . Coetzees

(Erhard Reckwitz) 1 86 Metscher , Thomas . Pariser Med i ta t i onen : Z u einer Ästhetik der Be f re iung

(Wolfgang Wicht) 2 180 M i n d t , Dieter . Ze i tbe zug i m Eng l i schen. E ine didaktische Grammat i k des

englischen Futurs (Hans Kirsten) 2 176 M o n o d , Paul K leber . Jacobi t ism and the Eng l i sh People, 1688-1788

(Vera Nünning) 3 260 M o r g a n , R i c h a r d . Cance l l ed Words . Red iscover ing Thomas Hardy

(Dieter Zeh) 4 397 M o r r i s o n , T o n y . P lay ing in the Dark . Whiteness and Literary Imagination

(Thomas Hi ike) 1 81 N e w Departures in Contrast ive Linguist ics. E d . by Chr is t ian M a i r and

Manf red M a r k u s (Klaus Hansen) 1 61 N o r t h , M i chae l . T h e Pol i t ical Aesthetic o f Yeats, E l i o t , and P o u n d

(Wolfgang Wicht) 1 74 O ldenburg , H e r m a n n . Angewandte Fachtext l inguist ik. " C o n c l u s i o n s " u n d

Zusammenfassungen (Wolfgang Thiele) 1 67 Pätzold, Kur t Michae l/Gramley , Stephen. A Survey o f M o d e r n Eng l i sh

Josef Schmied) 1 59 Pago, Annegret . " B e h o l d , H e C o m e s w i t h C l o u d e s " . Unte rsuchungen zur

eschatologischen D i c h t u n g in der englischen Literaturgeschichte des 17. und 1 8. Jahrhunderts (Stephan Lieske) 2 183

Panny, Jud i th D e l l . I have what I gave. T h e F i c t i on o f Janet Frame (Manon Spies) 3 278

Radikalität u n d Mäßigung. D e r englische R o m a n seit 1960. Hrsg . von Annegret M a a c k und Rüdiger Imho f (Göran Nieragden) 3 272

Ra i t t , Suzanne. V i t a and V i rg in ia . T h e W o r k and Fr iendship o f V . Sackv i l l e -West and V i r g in i a W o o l f (Vera Nünning) 1 88

I V

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Reg iona l i tat, Nationalität und Intcmationalität in der zeitgenössischen Lyr ik . Hrsg . von Lothar Fietz, Faul Ho f fmann und H a n s - W e r n e r L u d w i g (Barbara Ko ite) 3 265

R o e , N icho las . Wo rdswo r th and Co ler idge . T h e Rad ica l Years (Christoph Bode) 3 261

R u l a n d , R ichard/Bradbury , M a l c o l m . F r o m Puri tanism to Pos tmodern ism. A H is tory o f Amer i can Literature (Hans-Joachim Lang) 1 78

Schaller, Hans-Wo l f gang . D e r frühe historische R o m a n in A m e r i k a (Hans-Joachim Lang) 1 80

Slavery in the Amer icas. E d . by Wol fgang B inde r (Wolfgang Karrer) 3 282 Stiles, W i l l i a m B . Desc r ib ing Ta lk . A T a x o n o m y o f Verba l Response

M o d e s (Wolfgang Thiele) 2 178 Studies in Contrast ive Linguist ics and Er ro r Analysis. III. Practical Appl icat ions .

E d . by D i e t r i ch Neh l s (David Heath) 1 64 Studies in Scott ish F i c t i on : Twen t i e th Century . E d . by Joach im S c h w e n d

and Hors t W . Drescher (Peter Zenzinger) 2 188 Tens ions Between N o r t h and South . Studies in M o d e r n C o m m o n w e a l t h

Literature and Cu l tu r e . E d . by Ed i th Me t tke (Erhard Reckwitz) 1 84 T h e Amer i can Stage. Social and economic issues from the co lonia l per iod to

the present. E d . by R o n Engle and T i c e L. M i l l e r (Hans-Joachim Lang) 4 401 T h e Authent i c Cadence . Centenn ia l Essays on Gerard M a n l c y H o p k i n s .

E d . by A n t h o n y M o r t i m e r (Hans-Werner Ludwig) 2 184 T h e Br i t i sh and Irish N o v e l Since I960 . E d . by James Acheson

(Ansgar Nünning) 3 273 T h e M a k i n g o f a Pluralist Austral ia 1950-1990 . E d . by W e r n e r Scnn and

G iovanna Capone (Horst Prießnitz) 4 400 T h e O x f o r d C o m p a n i o n to the Eng l i sh Language. E d . by T o m M c A r t h u r

(Klaus Hansen) 2 174 T h e South Engl ish Legendary. E d . by Klaus P. Jankofsky (Fritz Kcmmlcr) 4 390 Th i r t y Years o f L inguist ic Evo lu t i on . E d . by M a r t i n Pütz Josef Schmied) 4 373 Towards a Standard Eng l i sh 1600—1800. E d . by D ie te r Stein u n d Ingrid

T i c k e n - B o o n van Ostade (Klaus Hansen) 4 376 Turne r , Mar tha A . M e c h a n i s m and the Nove l . Science in the Narrat ive

Process (Ansgar Nünning) 4 395

Wel te , Werner . Engl ische Semantik. E i n Lehr- und Übungsbuch mit u m ­fassender B ib l iographie (Klaus Hansen) 3 253

Wo l f , Werner . Ästhetische Il lusion und I l lus ionsdurchbrechung in der Erzählung (Annegret Maack) 3 267

Zbierska-Sawal la , A n n a . Early M i d d l e Eng l ish W o r d Format ion (Klaus Hatisen) 2 176

Bucheingänge 1 92

Bucheingänge 2 191

Bucheingänge 3 286

Bucheingänge 4 413

Inhalt

E d i t o r i a l 4

D i e He rausgebe r an d i o Lese r der Ζ.ΛΛ 5

L e o n h a r d L i p k a - II a n s - J ö r g S e h in i d

To begin with: degrees of i d i omat i c i t y , tex tua l func t i ons a n d p ragmat i c exp l o i t a t i ons o l a

f ixed express ion 6

H a h s K i r s t e n

K i n Plädoyer für das G e r u n d i u m 16

J ü r g e n E s s e r

Z u r T e r m i n o l o g i e u n d Ana lvse von n o m i n a l e n mg-Sätzen ( ' "Gerund ien" ) 21

R o l l M e y n - O l i v e r S c h e i d i n g

Treason, T r e a c h e r y , Be t raya l : Po l i t i c s , Ideology, a n d the Process of D i s i l l u s i o n m e n t in the

L i t e ra tu r e o f the S p a n i s h C i v i l W a r 2 7

H a n s - P e t e r W a g η e r

L e a r n i n g to R e a d the Kema lc Body . O n the F u n c t i o n o f Mane t ' s Olympia in J o h n Braine\s Room at the Top 3 8

I) i s k u ss i ο η s l o r u m : Z u m Selbstvcrständnis der A n g l i s t i k / A m e r i k a n i s t i k i m w i ede r v e r e in i g t en

D e u t s c h l a n d

T h o m a s H e r b s t

W i e w i rd m a n e i n guter Ang l i s t? - oder : I b e r d e n u n a b d i n g b a r e n S t e l l enwer t des L a t e i n i s c h e n 5 4

B u c h b e s p r e c h u n g e n

S t e p h a n G r a m l e y - K u r t M i c h a e l Pätzold: A Survey o f M o d e r n E n g l i s h (Josef Schmied) 5 9

New Depar tu res in Con t ras t i v e L ingu i s t i c s . K d . by C h r i s t i a n M a i r a n d M a n f r e d M a r k u s

(Klaus Hansen) 61

S tud i es i n Con t ras t i v e L ingu i s t i c s and E r r o r Ana l y s i s . III. P r a c t i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s . E d . by D i e t r i c h

Neh l s (David Heath)'. 6 4

H e i n z J . G i e g o r i c h : E n g l i s h Phono l o gy . A n i n t r o d u c t i o n (Klaus Hansen) 65

H e r m a r i n O l d e n b u r g : Angewand t e Fach t ex t l i n gu i s t i k . " C o n c l u s i o n s " u n d Zusammenlässungen

(Kol/gang Thiele) 6 7

K l a u s - D i e t e r B a r n i c k e l : Fa l s che F r e u n d e . E i n v e r g l e i chendes Wörterbuch D e u t s c h - E n g l i s c h

(Josef Schmied) 6 9

C o s t a K r a n t z : L e a r n i n g V o c a b u l a r y in a F o r e i g n L a n g u a g e (David Heath) 7 0

O l i v e r M a c D o n a g h : J a n e A u s t e n : Rea l and Imag ined W o r l d s (James Fanning) 71

l u i w a r d C h i t h a m : E m i l y B ron t e . E i n e L e b e n s b e s c h r e i b u n g (Annegret Maack) 73

M i c h a e l N o r t h : 'The P o l i t i c a l Aes the t i c o f Yeats , E l i o t , a n d P o u n d (Wolfgang Wicht) 7 4

S t e p h a n K o c h : D i c h t u n g als Archäologie. D i e L y r i k S e a m u s H e a n e y s (Robert l. Garralt) 76

R i c h a r d R u l a n d - M a l c o l m B r a d b u r y : F r o m P u r i t a n i s m to P o s t m o d e r n i s m . A H i s t o r y o f

A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e (Hans-Joachim hang) 78

H a n s - W o l f g a n g S c h a l l e r : D e r frühe h i s to r i sche R o m a n in A m e r i k a (Hans-Joachim hang) 8 0

Tony M o r r i s o n : P l a y i n g in the D a r k . Wh i t eness a n d L i t e r a r y Imag ina t i on (ihomas I lake) 81

R a y m o n d T e d e r m a n n : Now Then / N u n d e n n . A u t o . . . B i o . . . G r a p h i c P o e m s / G e d i c h t e -

F i n e Ve r s i on me ines Lebens . D i e frühen J a h r e (Thomas Inner) 82

Tens ions Between N o r t h and S o u t h . S tud ies i n M o d e r n C o m m o n w e a l t h L i t e r a tu r e a n d C u l t u r e .

E d . by E d i t h M e t t k e (Erhard Reckwitz) 8 4

A r n i m M e n n e c k e : K o l o n i a l e s Bewußtsein in den R o m a n e n J . M . Coetzees (Erhard Reckwitz) 8 6

S u z a n n e Rai t t : V i t a and V i r g i n i a . The W o r k and F r i e n d s h i p o f V . Sackv i l l e -Wes t a n d V i r g i n i a

W o o l f (I era Nünning) 8 8

J o h n B u r k e : The L e g e n d of Baby Doe (Thomas Hake) 9 0

Bucheingänge 92

A u t o r e n dieses Heftes 9 5

Inhalt

E d i t o r i a l 100

D i e H e r a u s g e b e r an d ie Lese r der Z A A 101

Λ η s μ;a r Ν i i η π i η g

(/ender a n d Na r r a t o l o g v . Ka t e go r i en u n d P e r s p e k t i v e n e i n e i T e m i n i s t i s e h e n N a r r a t i v i k 102

P a t r i c k I ) . E v a n s '

T h e l ' u t u r e o f the Past : M a k i n g H i s t o r y out o f N e w Z e a l a n d L i t e r a t u r e 122

J a m e s I i t ζ in a u r i c e

The N a r r a t o r i n A p h r a Hehn* * Ehe hair Jill 131

H a n s (.) s t e r w a I d e r

The L i t t l e Engländern M v l h - k i l l y : the C y c l i c C o n c e p t o l ' T i m e in P h i l i p P a r k i n ' s Poe t ry 139

F r i e d r i c h I η g e r e r

Bas ic l eve l c oncep t s a n d paras i t i c ca t ego r i sa t i on : a cogn i t i v e a l t e rna t i v e to c o n v e n t i o n a l

s e m a n t i c h i e r a r c h i e s 118

Κ a i η e r N a g e l

Das W o r t b i l d u n g s m o r p h e n i CYBER 163

Aus Universitäten und Hochschu len

B i e n n i a l C o n f e r e n c e of E A S A ( E u r o p e a n A s s o c i a t i o n o l S tud i e s on Aus t ra l i a ) at S i lges i n

O c t o b e r 1003 (idi U immer) 171

Bue lib e s ρ ree h u η ge η

The O x f o r d C o m p a n i o n to the E n g l i s h Language . E d . by Tom M c A r t h u r (Klaus Hansen) 171

A n n a Z b i e r s k a - S a w a l l a : E a r l v M i d d l e E n g l i s h W o r d f o r m a t i o n (Klaus Hansen) 176

D i c i e r V l i n d t : Z e i t b e z u g i m E n g l i s c h e n . E i n e d i d a k t i s c h e G r a m m a t i k des e n g l i s c h e n F u t u r s

(Hans Kirsten) 176

W i l l i a m B. S t i l e s : D e s c r i b i n g T a l k . A T a x o n o m y of V e r b a l Response M o d e s

(Wolfgang Thiele) . ' 178

F r e m d s p r a c h e n u n t e r r i c h t i m i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n V e r g l e i c h : P e r s p e k t i v e 2 0 0 0 . H r s g . von C l a u s C n u t z -

m a i i n u . a . (I rsula Karhe) 170

T h o m a s M e t s c h e r : Pa r i s e r M e d i t a t i o n e n : Z u e ine r Ästhetik de r B e f r e i u n g (// oljgang Ii icht) . . . 180

Anneg r e t Pago : " B e h o l d , H e C o m e s w i t h C l o i i d e s " . U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u r e s cha t o l o g i s chen D i c h t u n g

in d e r e n g l i s c h e n L i t e r a t i n g e s c h i c h t e des 17. u n d 18. J a h r h u n d e r t s

(Stephan Eieshe) 183

T h e A u t h e n t i c C a d e n c e . C e n t e n n i a l Essays on G e r a r d M a n l e y H o p k i n s . E d . by A n t h o n y

M o r t i m e r (Hans-ll einer Ludwig) 181

James C i n d i n : B r i t i s h f i c t i o n in the 1930s. T h e D i s p i r i t i n g D e c a d e (Stephan Lieske) 187

S tud ies i n Sco t t i sh f i c t i o n : T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y . E d . bv J o a c h i m S c h w e n d a n d Hors t

W . D r e s c h e r (Beter/enzinger) 188

B u r h e i n g a n g e 191

A u t o r e n dieses Heftes 192

Inhalt

Kd i t o r i a l 1 %

Die H e r a u s g e b e r an d io Lese r der ΖΛΛ 1 ()7

M a η I r e d Β e y e r

J o h n O s b o r n e : T rad i t i onss t i f t e r e ine r D r a m a t u r g i e des Z o r n s 11)8

J o s e p h C . S c h o p p

C h a r l e s Sea l s f i e ld : de r aufgeklärte europäische Re i s ende als a m e r i k a n i s c h e r M y t h e n b i l d n e r . . . . 2 1 6

M a r t i η Κ u e s t e r

( L o s t - ) M o d e m B r i c o l a g e : C lass i ca l M y t h o l o g y i n S h e i l a Watson ' s Sho r t S tor i es 2 2 5

J ο a e h i m K r a u t /.

Imagery and S e x u a l C o n n o t a t i o n s in W i l l i a m L m p s o n ' s Aubade 2 3 5

A n g e l i k a B e l g i e n

O n the H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d of L n g l i s h P u n c t u a t i o n 2 4 3

Buchbesprechungen

His to ry of L n g l i s h e s . N e w M e t h o d s a n d In t e rp re ta t i ons of H i s t o r i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s . L d . bv

Mat t i R i s s a n c n , Oss i l h a l a i n e n . T e r t t u N e v a l a i n e n . I r m a Tuaxhsnmcn (Josef Schmied) . . . . 251

W e r n e r We l t e : L n g l i s c h e S e m a n t i k . L i n L e h r - u n d Übungsbuch mit umfassende r

B i b l i o g r a p h i e (Klaus Hausen) 2 5 3

M i c h a e l l l o e v : Pa t te rns o f L ex i s in Tex t (Christina Schaffner) 2 5 1

L b e r h a r d K l e i n : Konditionalität in d i d a k t i s c h e n u n d pädagogischen G r a m m a t i k e n

des L n g l i s c h e n (Wolfgang Thiele) 2 5 7

P a u l K l e b e r M o n o d : J a c o b i t i s m and the L n g l i s h P eop l e , 1 6 8 8 - 1 7 8 8 (Vera Nünning) 2 6 0

N i cho l a s B o e : W o r d s w o r t h and C o l e r i d g e . The R a d i c a l Y ea r s (Christoph Bode) 261

Rcgionalität, Nationalität u n d Internationalität i n d e r zeitgenössischen L y r i k . H r s g . v on

L o t h a r L i e t z , P a i d H o f f m a n n u n d H a n s - W e r n e r L u d w i g (Barbara Körte) 2 6 5

W e r n e r Wo l f : Ästhetische I l lus i on u n d I l l u s i o n s d u r c h b r e c h u n g in de r Lrzählung

(Annegret Munck) 2 6 7

U l r i k e D u b b e r : D e r eng l i s che Lniversitätsroman de r N a c h k r i e g s z e i t (Rüdiger Imhof) 2 7 0

Radikalität u n d Mäßigung. D e r eng l i s che R o m a n seit l % 0 . H r s g . v on Anneg r e t M a a c k

u n d Rüdiger I m h o f (Cärun Nieragden) 2 7 2

The Br i t i sh a n d Ir ish Nove l S i n c e I 960 . L d . by J a m e s A c h e s o n (Ansgar Nünning) 2 7 3

M e d i a t i n g C u l t u r e s . P r o b l e m e des K u l t u r t r a n s f e r s . H r s g . von No rbe r t P la t z (Frunz Kuna) 2 7 6

J u d i t h De l l P a n n v : I have what I gave. T h e F i c t i o n o f Janet F r a i n e (Marion Spies) 2 7 8

J o h n P. M( W i l l i a m s , J r . : The A m e r i c a n L p i c T r a n s f o r m i n g a G e n r e , 1 7 7 0 - 1860

(IInns-Joachim Lang) 2 8 0

S lavery in the A m e r i c a s . L d . by Wo l f g ang B i n d e r (Wolfgang Karrer) 2 8 2

Che l s ea H o t e l . A Maga z in e for the Ar ts . V o l . I - IV. H r s g . von K l a u s Isele u n d D i r k Görtier

(Thomas Inner) 2 8 1

Bucheingänge 2 8 6

A u t o r e n dieses Heftes 2 8 8

Inhalt

E d i t o r i a l 2 0 3

Κ e k Ii a r d Β r e i t i ri g e r

MongreÜ/ation ve rsus the A b s o l u t i s m o l the P u r e -

D i e l u t e r n a t i o n a l i s i e r u n g der k u l t u r e l l e n S z e n e r i e u n d d ie n a l i o n a l l i l e r a r i s o h e

K a c h k o n z e p t i o n 2 9 5

R a i η e r S c h u I ζ e

H o w to Exp r e s s " D i s l i k e " i n W o r d s : A n Invest igat ion in to the M e t a p r a g m a t i c s o f E n g l i s h 3 0 6

T h o m a s K r a u s e

/ u m E m b l e m W o r t b i l d u n g u n d l be rse t zung . Dargeste l l t an d e n M o d e l l e n breakout

u n d to.xic-uaste dump 3 1 7

t » <> 11 I r i e (1 G r a u s t e i η

/ u Swif ts S c h r e i b v a r i a n t e n . Ans te l l e e i n e r K u h n o t e 3 2 7

Β e i i η ο W a g η e r

" W e K n o w A l l abou t the Past ... T r on i M y t h o l o g y to M v t h o g r a p h y in A b o r i g i n a l A u s t r a l i a . . . . 3 3 2

M a r i o K l a r e r

" T h i s is Not a R e a l T i l i n g " : Repräsentation, I l l u s t r a t i on u n d S i m u l a t i o n be i H e n r y J a m e s 3 4 0

S t e f f i 11 a b e r m e i e r

( )n I n t e r p r e t i n g B a r t l e b y 3 5 2

Β a r b a r a Κ ο r t e

D e r Re i s ebe r i ch t aus ang l i s t i s che r S i c h t : S t a n d , T e n d e n z e n u n d Des ide ra t e s e ine r l i t e r a t u r -

w i s s e n s c h a l t l i c l i e n E r f o r s c h u n g 3 6 4

M u c h hes ρ ree h ungen

T h i r t y ^ ears o f L i n g u i s t i c E v o l u t i o n . K d . bv M a r t i n Pütz (Josef Schmied) 3 7 3

Towards a S t a n d a r d E n g l i s h 1 6 0 0 - 1 8 0 0 . E d . by D i e t e r S t e i n u n d

Ing r id T i e k e n - B o o n van Os l ade (Klaus Hansen) 3 7 6

A. P. Cow io a n d R. M a e k i n : O x f o r d D i c t i o n a r y of P h r a s a l V e r b s (Thomas Herbst/Michael Klotz) . . 3 7 9

L o n g m a n L a n g u a g e A c t i v a t o r . H r sg . von D e l i a S u m m e r s (Michael Klotz) 381

D l D E N O x f o r d K l e i n e s W o r t e r b u c h E n g l i s c h (Thomas Herbst) 3 8 3

\ug l i z i s i n en -W örterbueh. B d . 1: λ - Κ (Thomas Herbst) 3 8 1

\ m e r i e a n D ia l e c t R e s e a r c h . E d . by D e n n i s R. P res ton (Josef Schmied) 3 8 7

The S o u t h E n g l i s h L e g e n d a r y . E d . bv K l a u s P. J a n k o f s k v (liitz Kemmler) 3 9 0

E u r o p e a n S h a k e s p e a r e s . T r a n s l a t i n g S h a k e s p e a r e in the R o m a n t i c Age. E d . by D i r k De labas t i t a

a n d L i e v e n 1) Hülst (Haimund Horgmeier) 3 9 1

S u s a n S n i a d e r L a n s e r : K i c t i ons o f A u t h o r i t y . W o m e n W r i t e r s a n d Na r ra t i v e V o i c e

( insgar Nünning) 3 9 3

M a r t h a A. T u r n e r : M e c h a n i s m and the N o v e l . S c i e n c e in the Na r ra t i v e Process (Ansgar Nünning) 3 0 5

R i c h a r d M o r g a n : C a n c e l l e d Words . R e d i s c o v e r i n g Thomas H a r d y (Dieter Zeh) 3 0 7

C u r t a i n ( 'a l ls . B r i t i s h a n d A m e r i c a n W o m e n and the "Theater (James hitzmaurice) 3 9 0

The A m e r i c a n Stage. S o c i a l and e c o n o m i c issues f rom the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d to the present .

K d . bv R o n E n g l e and T i e e L. M i l l e r (Hans-Joachim Lang) 401

P h i l i p H o m e : l l e n r v J a m e s and Rev i s i on (Hans-Joachim hang) 4 0 3

M a r t i n K u e s t e r : K r a i l l i n g Truths. Pa r od i e S t r u c t u r e s in C o n t e m p o r a r y E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n

H i s t o r i c a l Nove l s (Jutta Zimmermann) 4 0 5

B r u c e Benne t t : A n A u s t r a l i a n C o m p a s s . Essa ν s on P l a ce a n d D i r e c t i o n in A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e

(Norbert Pilz) '. 4 0 6

The M a k i n g of a P lu ra l i s t A u s t r a l i a 1 0 5 0 - 1 0 0 0 . K d . bv W e r n e r S e n n a n d G i o v a n n a C a p o n e

(Horst l'rießnitz) ' 4 0 9

J a m e s K a i r h a l l : J a m e s Joyce and the Q u e s t i o n o f H i s t o r y (Wolfgang Wicht) 411

Bucheingänge 4 1 3

A u t o r e n dieses Heftes 4 1 4

L E O N H A R D L I P K A - H A N S - J Ö R G S C H M I D

To begin with: degrees of idiomatieity, textual functions and pragmatic exploitations of a fixed expression

Abstract: In a context l ike " I lie story onlv seems to begin with ... , the word sequence to begin nitli c lear ly

has a meaning wh i ch differs from its typical sentence- ini t ia l use as in " T o begin wi th , let me sav that T h e

lirst example w i l l probably be understood " l i t e ra l l y ' whi le the second wi l l be interpreted as a fixed express ion

or id i om. It is argued that instead of a d ichotomy between the l i teral and id iomati/ed reading of to begin with there is a gradient o l id iomat ic i tv . Var ious degrees ol idiomatie i ty are i l lustrated with examples taken Irom the

Lancas le r -Os lo -Bergen corpus and descr ibed in terms of addi t iona l semantic components , textual funct ions

and pragmatic exploitat ions. It is shown that to begin icith is an important text -structur ing device, and that

speakers seem to use to begin with as a k i n d ol " l ingu is t i c threatening gesture". F ina l l y , the semantic and func­

t ional aspects o l to begin with are compared to the related expressions to stori with and for a stört, wi th refe­

rence to an earl ier analysis of the semantic difference between begin and start (Schmid 1993).

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

S i n c e t h e a d v e n t o f t h e p r o t o t y p e t h e o r y o f c a t e g o r i z a t i o n i n t h e s e v e n t i e s t h e r e has b e e n a

s t r o n g t e n d e n c y to a p p l y t h e c o n c e p t s o f p r o t o t y p e c a t e g o r i e s a n d f a m i l y r e s e m b l a n c e s t o l i n ­

g u i s t i c t e r m i n o l o g y . T h e r e s u l t o l t h i s w i d e s p r e a d e n t h u s i a s m l o r f u z z y c a t e g o r y b o u n d a r i e s h a s

b e e n a r e v i s i o n o l a l l k i n d s o f t r a d i t i o n a l l y c l e a r - c u t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o r d i c h o t o m i e s (e. g. p h o ­

n e m e s , m o r p h e m e s , g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s , i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n s : cf. e . g . T a y l o r 1 9 8 9 .

T s o h a t z i d i s 1990 ) i n t e r m s o f s c a l e s a n d g r a d i e n t s . W h i l e t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e

w e l c o m e d , b e c a u s e p r o t o t y p e t h e o r y d o e s i n d e e d s e e m to c a p t u r e t h e e s s e n c e o l c a t e g o r i e s

m o r e a d e q u a t e l y t h a n c l a s s i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s , t h e n e w a p p r o a c h a l s o h o l d s t h e d a n g e r o l e n c o u r ­

a g i n g w h a t W i e r z b i c k a h a s d e n o u n c e d as ' I n t e l l e c t u a l l a z i n e s s a n d s l o p p i n e s s ' ' ( 1 9 9 0 : 3 6 5 ) .

In t h i s p a p e r we w i l l a d d r e s s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s i m p l e l e x e m e s a n d f i x e d

e x p r e s s i o n s o r i d i o m s . W e w i l l u s e t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n to begin nith to s h o w

tha t i n s t e a d o f a d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n l i t e r a l m e a n i n g a n d i d i o m a t i c u s e t h e r e a r c v a r i o u s d e ­

g r e e s o f i d i o m a t i c i t v . ' F a k i n g h e e d o f W i e r z b i c k a ' s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e a b u s e s o f p r o t o t y p e t h e o r y ,

w e w i l l u s e a n a r r a y o f s e m a n t i c , s y n t a c t i c , t e x t u a l a n d p r a g m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n o r d e r to

s p e c i f y t h e s c a l e o f i d i o m a t i c i t v r a t h e r t h a n m e r e l y s tate t h a t it e x i s t s .

2. C o m p l e x e x p r e s s i o n s w i th start a n d begin: a scale o f i d iomat i e i ty

T h e m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s s t u d y is t a k e n f r o m t h e L a n c a s t e r - O s l o - B e r g e n c o r p u s o f L n g l i s h

( L O B ) . I n a n u m b e r o f o t h e r e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s w h i c h u s e d t h e L O B fo r a d a t a b a s e (cf. L e i t z k e

1 9 8 9 , G r i m m 1 9 9 1 ) i t h a s b e e n r e g r e t t e d t h a t t h e c o l l e c t e d m a t e r i a l is no t e x t e n s i v e e n o u g h f o r

m a n y p u r p o s e s . T h e s a m e q u a n t i t a t i v e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e L O B m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n t h e p r e s e n t

r e s e a r c h : w h i l e to begin with w a s at least r e c o r d e d I I t i m e s i n t h e L O B , for a start was l o u n d

o n l y 3 t i m e s a n d to start with d i d n o t o c c u r at a l l i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f a b o u t 1 m i l l i o n w o r d s .

T h e r e f o r e , a d d i t i o n a l e x a m p l e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m g r a m m a r t e x t b o o k s , d i c t i o n a r i e s , a n d f r o m

a n i n t r o d u c t o r y t e x t b o o k o n C o g n i t i v e P s y c h o l o g y (San fo ro ! 1 9 8 5 ) . In w h a t f o l l o w s , w e w i l l

To begin niIIi

f o cus o u r a t t e n t i o n o n t ht" e x p r e s s i o n to begin ivith, a n d r e l a t e to start with a n d for a start to

t h e s e f i n d i n g s i n s e c t i o n I.

T o s o m e r e a d e r s , t h e c l a i m t h a t to begin with e x h i b i t s s e m a n t i c i d i o s y n c r a s i e s w h i c h a r e c a u s e d

bv t h e fact t h a t it h a s u n d e r g o n e a p r o c e s s o n e m i g h t c a l l I e x i c a l i z a t i o n m a y s e e m r a t h e r p r e ­

m a t u r e . A n d i n d e e d , e x a m p l e s o f t h e w o r d s e q u e n c e to begin with i n t h e L O B c a n be p r o v i d e d

w h i c h r e v e a l t i n s c l a i m to he l a r g e l y u n w a r r a n t e d . E x a m p l e (I ) is a case i n p o i n t :

(1) [ T h i s I is o l t e n i g n o r e d so t h a t t h e s tory o n l y s e e m s to b e g i n w i t h t h e o t h e r w i s e i n e x p l i c ­

a b l e l o r r y - f o r a y s a ga ins t r e d c e n t r e s ... ( L O B J 5 6 5)

I n t h i s e x a m p l e , a n y a s s e r t i o n t h a t begin o r to begin ivith a c q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l s e m a n t i c e l e m e n t s

o v e r a n d a b o v e t h e p r o t o t y p i c a l a t t r i b u t e ' i n c h o a t i v e ' w o u l d r u n i n t o s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s , b e ­

c a u s e n e i t h e r s y n t a c t i c n o r s e m a n t i c c l u e s c a n h e o b t a i n e d . It s e e m s , t h e n , t h a t i n e x a m p l e (1)

begin is u s e d i n a c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h , b y m e r e c o i n c i d e n c e , is f o r m a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e f i x e d

e x p r e s s i o n to begin ivith.

N o w , b y w a v o f c o m p a r i s o n , c o n s i d e r e x a m p l e (2) .

(2) I w o u l d l i k e to b e g i n w i t h t h e less d e v e l o p e d m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h a n d t h o s e

t e r r i t o r i e s w h i c h a r e s t i l l d e p e n d e n t . ( L O B H 2 1 20 )

A t f irst s i g h t , it a g a i n s e e m s h a r d l y c o n v i n c i n g to c a l l t h e s e q u e n c e to begin ivith a l e x i e a l i z e d

f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n . A n d yet , o n e m a y l e e l t h a t a n a d d i t i o n a l s e m a n t i c e l e m e n t is p r e s e n t i n (2)

w h i c h is m i s s i n g i n ( I ) . H e a r i n g a s p e a k e r s tar t h i s s p e e c h o r l e c t u r e w i t h t h e w o r d s / would

like to begin ivith .... we a r e c o a x e d i n t o a s s u m i n g t h a t t h i s is o n l y t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a w h o l e l i s t

o f i s sues to h e d e a l t w i t h . F r o m a t r a n s p h r a s t i c p o i n t o l v i e w , t h e s e n t e n c e f u n c t i o n s as a n i n t r o ­

d u c t i o n to o r a n a n n o u n c e m e n t o l w h a t is to c o m e l a t e r , a n d to begin ivith c o n t r i b u t e s a m a j o r

pa r t to p e r f o r m i n g t h i s f u n c t i o n . M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e ' a n n o u n c i n g f u n c t i o n * o f (2) c a n be l o c a t ­

ed i n t h e m e a n i n g o f begin ( s o m e t h i n g tha t b e g i n s u s u a l l y a l s o goes o n i n s o m e way ) a n d i n t h e

fact t h a t s o m e sor t o f l o e u t i v e ob j e c t l i k e / would like to begin my speech ivith ... h a s b e e n

o m i t t e d . It t h u s s e e m s t h a t t h e s e q u e n c e to begin ivith i n (2) c o m e s a l i t t l e c l o s e r to a n i d i o m a t i z e d

use t h a n it d o e s i n ( I ) , b e c a u s e it c o n v e y s o n e a d d i t i o n a l s e m a n t i c e l e m e n t , w h i c h c a n r o u g h l y

b e g l o s s e d ' a n n o u n c i n g tha t t h e r e is m o r e to c o m e ' . A l s o , t h e o m i s s i o n o f t h e l o e u t i v e o b j e c t is

par t o l t h e i d i o m a t i z a t i o n p r o c e s s .

S u p e r f i c i a l l y , it is o n l y a s m a l l s t ep I r o m e x a m p l e (2) t o i n t u i t i v e l y m o r e i d i o m a t i z e d uses o f

to begin ivith s u c h as (3) o r (1).

(3) I n t e n t i o n , I w o u l d sugges t to b e g i n w i t h , is a t e r m w h i c h is a p p l i c a b l e w h e n a c e r t a i n

r o u g h l y s p e c i f i a b l e c o m p l e x o l c o n d i t i o n s h o l d . ( L O B G 6 3 139)

(1) T o b e g i n w i t h , t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n is h e l d to be t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e m y s t e r y o f r e d e m p ­

t i o n , t h e o p e n d e m o n s t r a t i o n o l C o d ' s s a v i n g a c t i v i t y to w h i c h a l l p r e v i o u s s a c r e d

h i s t o r y h a s b e e n l e a d i n g . ( L O B I) 0 8 150 )

H o w e v e r , a c l o s e r l o o k at t h e e x a m p l e s r e v e a l s a n u m b e r o l i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s . A s i n

e x a m p l e (2) a b o v e , s e n t e n c e s (3) a n d (1) a r e p r e p a r i n g us fo r a list o f s e v e r a l i t e m s . It c o u l d

t h e r e f o r e h e c o n j e c t u r e d tha t t h e a n n o u n c i n g f u n c t i o n is a c o n s t a n t s e m a n t i c ( d e m e n t o f t h e

p h r a s e to begin with. I n d e e d , m a n y d i c t i o n a r i e s i n s o m e way o r o t h e r c a p t u r e t h i s i d e a o f t h e

""f irst o l a n u m b e r o l p o i n t s \ C o m p a r e l o r e x a m p l e (5) a n d (6) :

(5) To begin ivith: " the first r e a s o n is"

To begin ivith, it's too cold and besides, we have no money. ( E D G E )

(6) Y o u use t h e e x p r e s s i o n to begin ivith [...] to i n t r o d u c e t h e f i rst o f a n u m b e r o f t h i n g s

t h a t y o u w a n t to sav . ( G O B I ILL ) )

T h e s e p a r a p h r a s i n g d i c t i o n a r y e n t r i e s a r e no t i m m u n e to c r i t i c i s m . In p a r t i c u l a r , t h e use o f t h e

w o r d ' " r e a s o n " i n t h e e n t r y i n t h e L D C E is d i s p u t a b l e . W h i l e a c a u s a t i v e m e a n i n g e l e m e n t

m i g h t p e r h a p s be p o s t u l a t e d fo r (4) a n d t h e e x a m p l e g i v e n i n t h e L D C E , f o r (3) a n d many-

o t h e r e x a m p l e s it a p p e a r s to be o u t o l p l a c e . In a d d i t i o n , o n e m i g h t he i n c l i n e d to a r g u e o v e r

8 lApha - Schmid

t h e use o f t h e w o r d ^ f i r s t " i n t h e s e d i c t i o n a r y e n t r i e s . A l t h o u g h l o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e

i n t e n t i o n o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e l e x i c o g r a p h e r s s e e m s to he t r a n s p a r e n t e n o u g h , t h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e

r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a beginning and a first entity is far f r o m c l e a r . A l t e r a l l , it is no t i n c o n c e v a b l e

that s o m e t h i n g c o u l d be s t a r t e d w i t h , say , t h e t h i r d p o i n t i n a l i s t . 1 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e l e x i ­

c o g r a p h e r s c o u l d r e p l y t h a t by v i r t u e o f t h e very fact tha t a c e r t a i n p o i n t o u t o f m a n y is p u t at

t h e start o f e. g. a l e c t u r e , it i n fact b e c o m e s t h e f i rs t p o i n t . T h i s s e e m s to be a r a t h e r e l e g a n t

w a y o f s e t t l i n g t h e u n c l e a r s t a tus o f t h e w o r d first. A l l t h e s a m e , w e m u s t no t I ο i g e t tha t e x a m ­

p l e (2), a n d f o r t h a t m a t t e r a l s o e x a m p l e (3), h a v e t a u g h t us tha t as o f t e n as no t t h e s e n t e n c e

c o n t a i n i n g t h e e x p r e s s i o n to begin nith d o e s no t c o n t a i n t h e f irst p o i n t o f a l i s t , b u t i n t r o d u c e s

o r a n n o u n c e s t h e l i s t . W e m a y t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e tha t i n c o n t r a s t to l i t e r a l uses as r e p r e s e n t e d

by e x a m p l e (1), to begin nith, as a f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n , h a s a c q u i r e d o n e o f t h e t w o s e m a n t i c (de­

m e n t s " a n n o u n c i n g a l is t o f i t e m s " o r ' f i r s t p o i n t o f a l is t o f i t e m s . It t h u s f u n c t i o n s as a d i s ­

c o u r s e s i g n a l .

A s e c o n d p o i n t w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e i d i o m a t i z e d uses o f to begin icith f r o m o t h e r e x a m ­

p l e s is t h e i r f o r m a l i n v a r i a b i l i t y . W h e r e a s a b o v e , it p r o v e d p e r f e c t l y p o s s i b l e to e x p a n d e x a m p l e

(2) f r o m / would like to begin with ... to / would like to begin my speech icith .... s i m i l a r i n s e r ­

t i o n s i n t o t h e e x p r e s s i o n to begin with a r e n o t f e a s i b l e i n (3) a n d (4). I n fac t , t h e f o r m a l i n v a r i a ­

b i l i t y o f a f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n is o n e c r i t e r i o n l o r i d i o m a t i c i t v w h i c h h a s b e e n p u t l o r w a r d by

R u s s i a n l i n g u i s t s l i k e I. A . M e l Y u k a n d N . \ . A m o s a v a (cf. L i p k a ( 1 9 7 4 ) ) a n d w h i c h s h o u l d

a l w a y s h e k e p t i n m i n d .

T h i r d l y , it m u s t be n o t e d t h a t i n i d i o m a t i c uses o f to begin with, begin d o e s no t o f c o u r s e f u n c ­

t i o n as t h e m a i n v e r b o f t h e c l a u s e i n w h i c h it o c c u r s , as is t h e cast» i n l i t e r a l uses s u c h as (1) o r

(2). I n s t e a d , t h e w h o l e f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n to begin icith is u s u a l l y e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e c l a u s e p a t ­

t e r n a n d f u n c t i o n s as s e n t e n c e a d v e r b i a l (cf. (4)) o r is p u t i n s o m e k i n d o f c o m m e n t i n g p a r e n ­

t h e s i s (cf. (3) a n d s e c t i o n 3 .1 ) .

F i n a l l y , as a f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n to begin icith e x h i b i t s p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h d o not

o c c u r i n n o n - i d i o m a t i z e d a n d h a l f - i d i o m a t i z c d uses s u c h as (1) a n d (2) r e s p e c t i v e l y . In (1) a n d

(2), t h e p r e p o s i t i o n icith is u n d o u b t e d l y of v e r y l o w i n t o n a t o r y p r o m i n e n c e : i n a d d i t i o n , its f i n a l

f r i c a t i v e w i l l , i n a s s i m i l a t i o n w i t h t h e e n s u i n g h o m o r g a n i c / ò /, o b t a i n a v o i c e d q u a l i t y . In c o n ­

t ras t , t h e c o m m a i n e x a m p l e (4) i n d i c a t e s a p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e t w o s o u n d s , s e p a r a t i n g t h e

e x p r e s s i o n to begin icith f r o m t h e rest o f t h e sentence* . L i s t e n i n g to n a t i v e p e o p l e r e a d i n g out

s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g to begin icitlh o n e a l s o r e a l i z e s tha t t h e y t e n d to e m p h a s i z e t h e w h o l e

p h r a s e by e n d i n g it w i t h a s l i g h t r i s i 1 i n p i t c h o n t h e w o r d nith. C o n c o m i t a n t l y , t h e s e c o n d s y l ­

l a b l e o f t h e w o r d begin a c q u i r e s a m u c h h i g h e r d e g r e e o f t o n i c p r o m i n e n c e t h a n i n (1) a n d (2),

b e c a u s e t h e p h r a s e to begin with f u n c t i o n s as a t o n e u n i t i n its o w n r i g h t . S i m i l a r p h o n o l o g i c a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a p p l y f o r t h e w o r d s e q u e n c e i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n c o m m a s (7 would suggest to begin

with) i n e x a m p l e (3).

W e h a v e so far s i n g l e d o u t s o m e s e m a n t i c , f o r m a l , s y n t a c t i c a n d p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o l

t h e s e q u e n c e to begin with, w h i c h j u s t i f y o u r c l a i m tha t it is a n i d i o m a t i z e d o r f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n .

In a d d i t i o n , t h e fact t h a t t h e r e a n * uses o f to begin with w h i c h h a v e o n l y a c q u i r e d o n e a d d i t i o n ­

a l s e m a n t i c e l e m e n t (cf. (2)) h a s s h o w n tha t i n s t e a d o f a t w o - f o l d d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " l i t e r a l "

a n d " i d i o m a t i c " , t h e r e is a g r a d i e n t o f i d i o m a t i c i t v r u n n i n g f r o m c l e a r l y l i t e r a l to m o r e o r less

i d i o m a t i c uses . "

T h e e x a m p l e s w e h a v e p r o v i d e d so fa r g i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t i n i d i o m a t i c uses , to begin with

a c q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s w h i c h necess i ta te 1 a s t ep b e y o n d s i m p l e s e m a n t i c a n d s y n t a c t i c

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . In p a r t i c u l a r , w e h a v e s e e n tha t to begin with h a s a n i m p o r t a n t t e x t u a l f u n c t i o n

a n d is u s e d as a d i s c o u r s e s i g n a l . In t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n w e w i l l d i s c u s s t h i s t e x t u a l f u n c t i o n

a n d t r y to s h o w h o w it is e x p l o i t e d by s p e a k e r s f o r p r a g m a t i c p u r p o s e s ( in a l i t e r a l a n d a l i n g u i s ­

t i c s ense ) .

lo begin \i ith

3. ho begin with as a d i s cou r se s i gna l

3.1. T e x t u a l ( unc t i ons

It has a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d t h a t to begin with is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n a n a n n o u n c i n g f u n c ­

t i o n . W h a t t h e d i s c o u r s e s i g n a l to begin ivith e v e n t u a l l y a n n o u n c e s o r i n t r o d u c e s , a n d h o w it

a c h i e v e s t h i s f u n c t i o n , v a r i e s to a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t . I n e x a m p l e (3) t h e p a r e n t h e s i s c o n t a i n ­

i n g to begin with s e r v e s as a k i n d o f h e a d i n g u n d e r w h i c h a n u m b e r o l a r g u m e n t s ( w h i c h w e

h a v e not p r o v i d e d ) a n * o r d e r e d . A s w e h a v e s a i d , i n t h e s e cases to begin ivith d o e s no t c o n s t i t u t e

t h e first e l e m e n t o f a l i s t , bu t i n t r o d u c e s t h e l i s t w h i c h f o l l o w s . T h i s h a s n o t b e e n r e c o g n i z e d b y

l e x i c o g r a p h e r s .

In o t h e r e x a m p l e s i n o u r c o r p u s , to begin with d o e s a c c o m p a n y t h e f i rs t p o i n t i n a l is t of

i t e m s , e. g. i n (7 ) :

(7) T h e n e w b o o k |...| is a case i n p o i n t . T h e b o o k is , to b e g i n w i t h , c u r i o u s l y n o n - c r i t i c a l .

[...] T h e r e i s , f u r t h e r a n i r r e d u c a b l e s e n t i m e n t a l i s m a b o u t t h e b o o k . ( L O B 0 3 6 144)

H e r e , t h e f irst s e n t e n c e o f t h e p a r a g r a p h p r o v i d e s t h e h e a d i n g w h i l e t h e s e n t e n c e c o n t a i n i n g to

begin ivith a l r e a d y m e n t i o n s t h e l i r s t a r g u m e n t .

A s far as t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e " l i s t * " is c o n c e r n e d , t h e v a r i a t i o n is s t i l l g r e a t e r . W h i l e it is t r u e

tha t s o m e t i m e s a s e r i e s o f r e a s o n s is g i v e n (cf. (3)) , t h i s is no t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e ca s e . In fac t , to

begin ivith c a n a l s o i n t r o d u c i 1 l i s t s o f o t h e r i t e m s s u c h as p o i n t s to be d i s c u s s e d o r a r g u m e n t s

pu t f o r w a r d i n f a v o u r o f a n a s s e r t i o n . T h i s c a n he i l l u s t r a t e d bv p r o v i d i n g m o r e c o n t e x t f o r

e x a m p l e (1) q u o t e d a b o v e :

(8) These s tages o f d e v e l o p m e n t r e f l e c t t h e C h u r c h ' s c h a n g i n g o u t l o o k . T o b e g i n w i th ,

t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n is h e l d to be t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f the* m y s t e r y of r e d e m p t i o n , t h e o p e n

d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f G o d ' s s a v i n g a c t i v i t y to w h i c h a l l p r e v i o u s s a c r e d h i s t o r y h a s b e e n

l e a d i n g . S e c o n d l y , t h e t e a c h i n g o f J e s u s is h e l d to be a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o l t h e r e v e l a t i ­

o n , t h o u g h its t r u e s i g n i f i c a n c e w a s o n l y k n o w n to t h e " e l e c t * . |...|. T h e t h i r d a n d

f inal stage is t h e c l a i m tha t |...|. ( L O B I) 0 8 ISO)

E x a m p l e (8) g i v e s a g o o d i d e a o f h o w s p e a k e r s , o r m o r e o f t e n w r i t e r s , e m p l o y to b e g i n w i th i n

o r d e r to s t r u c t u r e t h e i r t e x t u a l o u t p u t . A l t e r t h e t o p i c h a s b e e n i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e f irst s e n t e n c e

o f t h e p a r a g r a p h , to begin with s e r v e s as a m a r k e r f o r t h e f irst of t h e s tages m e n t i o n e d i n t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h is l a t e r t a k e n u p b y t h e w o r d s secondly a n d the third and final stage. I n

cases l i k e t h i s . K e l l e r ( 1 0 8 1 : 071) s p e a k s o f t h e " s e m a n t i c f r a m i n g " o f t h e " " top ic "* by m e a n s o f

v e r b a l s i g n a l s w h i c h h e c a l l s " gamb i t s " ' " . H o w e v e r , it is no t r e a l l y t h e t o p i c tha t is s t r u c t u r e d by

t h e s e s i g n a l s , bu t t h e m e s s a g e i tse l f , a n d i n o u r o p i n i o n , t h e t e r n i " " s e m a n t i c f r a m i n g " s e e m s a

l i t t l e p o m p o u s for t h e s i m p l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o l a list of i t e m s . W e w i l l t h e r e f o r e s t e e r c l e a r o l

K e l l e r ' s t e r m i n o l o g y a l t o g e t h e r a n d use t h e m o r e g e n e r a l t e r m " d i s c o u r s e m a r k e r * ' i n t r o d u c e d

b y S c h i f i m i ( 1087 ) . '

T o s u m u p t h e d i s c u s s i o n so far , w e h a v e s e e n that f r o m a t e x t u a l p o i n t of v i e w to begin ivith

c a n m a r k e i t h e r t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o r t h e a c t u a l be<>mnin " o f a l i s t o l v a r i o u s k i n d s of i t e m s . In

c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r t e x t u a l s i g n a l s it t h e r e f o r e e n h a n c e s t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o l t ex t s a n d

c r e a t e s text c o h e s i o n . In t h e bv n o w c l a s s i c a c c o u n t o f c o h e s i o n p r e s e n t e d b y l l a l l i d a v & H a s a n

( 1 9 7 0 ) . to begin ivith a n d t h e l i k e a r e t r e a t e d as s u r f a c e s i g n a l s fo r a n u n d e r l y i n g s e m a n t i c r e l a ­

t i o n l a b e l l e d " ' c o n j u n c t i o n " . A c c o r d i n g to H a l l i d a y & H a s a n , c o n j u n c t i o n a p p e a r s i n a n " i n t e r ­

n a r * a n d a n " e x t e r n a l " v a r i e t y . In e s s e n c e , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n c a p t u r e s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n tha t s o m e ­

t i m e s c o n j u n c t i v e i t e m s o n l y c o n c e r n t h e way s p e a k e r s p r e s e n t t h e i r d i s c o u r s e (cf. (9)). f a n d

s o m e t i m e s t h e y r e l a t e r e a l e v e n t s to e a c h o t h e r (cf. (10) ) .

(0) N e x t , h e w a s i n c a p a b l e o f i n s e r t i n g t h e k e y i n t o t h e l o c k .

(10) N e x t , h e i n s e r t e d t h e k e y i n t o t h e l o c k . ( H a l l i d a y & H a s a n 1 9 7 6 : 2 3 9 )

In a l l t h e e x a m p l e s we h a v e q u o t e d so far , to begin with b e l o n g s to t h e i n t e r n a l t y p e of c o n j u n c -

10 Lip ko - Schmid

l i o n a n d i n d e e d i n t h e l is ts p r o v i d e d by H a l l i d a y a n d H a s a n ( 1 9 7 6 : 2 6 7 ) it o c c u r s u n d e r " t e m ­

p o r a l r e l a t i o n s ( i n t e r n a l ) " o n l y . Y e t t h e d a t a i n o u r c o r p u s c l e a r l y s h o w tha t to begin icith is

u s e d i n e x t e r n a l f u n c t i o n as w e l l , as i n (1 1):

(11 ) B y d e g r e e s . C e n t i g r a d e v. F a h r e n h e i t .

T h e l i g h t is o n . To begin icith, b o t h t e m p e r a t u r e s w i l l b e p u t i n t h e r i n g t o g e t h e r .

T h e p r e s s a n d t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g a u t h o r i t i e s a r e a s k e d to h e l p . ( F O B Β 0 3 160)

In t h i s e x a m p l e , to begin icith is no t j u s t a n e l e m e n t o f t h e " s p e a k e r ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n o f h i s d i s ­

c o u r s e " ( H a l l i d a y cx H a s a n 1 9 7 6 : 2 3 9 ) , bu t it a l s o d e s c r i b e s t h e o r d e r o f t h e e v e n t s as t h e y

o c c u r i n r e a l i t y . S o m e w h a t m o r e c o n f u s i n g is e x a m p l e (12 ) , w h i c h e p i t o m i z e s t h e use o f to

begin icith f a v o u r e d by S a n l o r d i n h i s i n t r o d u c t o r y t e x t b o o k . 1

(12 ) To begin icith, w e s h a l l c o n s i d e r s o m e i m p o r t a n t d a t a o n l e a r n i n g w h i c h c a n b e i n t e r ­

p r e t e d i n t e r m s o l t h e w o r k i n g m e m o r y h y p o t h e s i s . T h e n we w i l l m o v e o n to more*

s p e c i f i c i d e a s w h i c h h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w o r k i n g m e m o r y c o n c e p t .

C o m p a r i n g t h i s e x a m p l e to (8), w e r e a l i z e tha t h e r e to begin icith is no t u s e d to p u t a s t r u c t u r a l

g r i d o n t h e o n g o i n g pa r t o f t h e t e x t , b u t r a t h e r o n t h e passages that a r e to f o l l o w . T h i s is r e f l e c ­

t e d i n t h e u s e o f t h e m a i n v e r b o f t h e c l a u s e {ice shall consider ...). S o , a l t h o u g h to begin icith i n

(12 ) a l s o r e f e r s to t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f l a n g u a g e , it d i f f e r s f r o m (8) i n tha t a f u t u r e l i n g u i s t i c act

is p r e d i c t e d . I n (8) it is p a r t o f t h e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e i m m e d i a t e t ex t passage i tse l f , w h i l e i n (12)

to begin icith r e f e r s to t h e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e l a t e r t ex t .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r n a l a n d the* e x t e r n a l u s e o f to begin icith as a c o n j u n c t i v e

s i g n a l is p a r a l l e l e d b o t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t language* f u n c t i o n a n d i n t h e type* o f s p e e c h act t h a t is

p e r f o r m e d . T h e i n t e r n a l use* e x e m p l i f i e d by (8) is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n

of l a n g u a g e , s i n c e it r e f l e c t s "the* s p e a k e r ' s o w n ' s t a m p 1 o n the* s i t u a t i o n " ( H a l l i d a y & H a s a n

1 9 7 6 : 2 4 0 ) . In e f fect , to begin icith h e r e s e r v e s as a m e t a l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r a l d e v i c e . I n c o n t r a s t ,

t h e to begin icith i n (12) is a l i n g u i s t i c e l e m e n t t h a t r e f l e c t s the* e x p e r i e n t i a l f u n c t i o n o f l a n ­

guage*. L i k e w i s e we c o u l e l argue* t h a t , a p p l y i n g S e a r l e ' s ( 1 9 7 6 ) t a x o n o m y o f speee 'h ac t s , the*

u t t e r a n c e i n (8) m u s t be a s s i g n e d te> t h e g r o u p o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , b e c a u s e it is a s t a t e m e n t . T h e

f i rst u t t e r a n c e i n (12 ) . o n the* o t h e r h a n d , m a k e s p r e d i c t i o n s o n a f u t u r e act o f t h e s p e a k e r a n d

m u s t t h e r e l o r e b e c l a s s i f i e d as a c o m m i s s i v e . S o o n a d e e p e r l e v e l , t h e t w o s e e m i n g l y so s i m i l a r

o c c u r r e n c e s o l to begin nith i n (8) a n d (12) r e v e a l a n u m b e r o f i n t e r e s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s .

H o w d o e s the* p o s i t i o n o l to begin icith i n the* s e n t e n c e i n w h i c h it o c c u r s t i e i n w i t h its t e x ­

t u a l f u n c t i o n ? G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , to begin icith c a n be* p u t i n t o a n i n i t i a l , a m e d i a l o r a f i n a l

p o s i t i o n . T h e d a t a i n o u r c o r p u s i n d i c a t e tha t w h i l e n o c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n p o s i t i o n a n d the*

t y p e of t e x t u a l f u n c t i o n c a n be* e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e n * is a c l e a r p r e f e r e n c e te) use* to begin icith s e n ­

t e n c e - i n i t i a l l y o r , i n p a r e n t h e s e s , r i g h t a f t e r the* sub j e c t as i n (3) above*. A n d t h i s is ed c ourse '

h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g , l o r a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s . S i n c e ' the* m o s t f r e q u e n t s y n t a c t i c f u n c t i o n f u l f i l l e d

b y to begin icith is tha t o f a s e n t e n c e c o n j u n c t ( in t h e s e n s e o f Q u i r k et a l . 1 9 8 5 ) , it t e n d s to be

f o u n d i n t h e c a n o n i c a l c o n j u n c t p o s i t i o n , i . e. at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the* s e n t e n c e . F r o m a t e x t u a l

p o i n t o f v i e w it is a g a i n o n l y sens ib le* to p u t s t r u c t u r a l s i g n a l s s e n t e n c e - i n i t i a l l y , b e c a u s e t h i s is

o b v i o u s l y a p e r c e p t u a l l y s a l i e n t p o s i t i o n . II a s p e a k e r e n v i s a g e s a s t r o n g s t r u c t u r a l g r i d o f the*

t y p e To begin icith ... Secondly ... Thirdly ... e tc . , it is r e c o m m e n d a b l e to e m p l o y these* d i s c o u r s e

m a r k e r s at the* b e g i n n i n g o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s e n t e n c e s .

3.2 P r a g m a t i c e xp l o i t a t i ons

In approximate* !ν 5 0 p e r c e n t o f the* e x a m p l e s o f to begin icith tha t we* h a v e c o l l e c t e d , the*

a n n o u n c i n g f u n c t i o n m i s f i r e s , o r i n o t h e r w o r d s , to begin with, is n o t f o l l owe 'd by a l i s t . T h i s

r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r i n t h e s e eases s p e a k e r s p u r s u e o t h e r a i m s bv u s i n g to begin with

a n d i l s o . w h a t t h e y a r e . W e w i l l p u t f o r w a r d t w o poss ib le* w a y s i n w h i c h s p e a k e r s take* a d v a n ­

tage of t h e t e x t u a l f u n c t i o n o f to begin with f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s .

To begin ivi ih

f i r s t l y , t h e r e c a n be n o d o u b t that E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s a r e w e l l a w a r e o l t h e lac t t h a t n o t e v e r y

to begin ivith is f o l l o w e d by m o r e p o i n t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s s e e m to a s s u m e

tha t s o m e h o w o r o t h e r to begin ivith is o f t e n o r at l eas t s h o u l d i n fact he f o l l o w e d b y o n e o r

m o r e f u r t h e r i t e m s o r a r g u m e n t s . S o . e v e n t h o u g h as s p e a k e r s t h e y t e n d to n e g l e c t t h e l is t

t h e m s e l v e s , as h e a r e r s o r r e a d e r s t h e y e x p e c t s o m e so r t of c o n t i n u a t i o n a l l t h e s a m e . T h u s , o n e

m i g h t sav t h a t to begin ivith e v o k e s a n e x p e c t a n t s ta te o f m i n d i n t h e h e a r e r , w h o b e l i e v e s t h a t

t h e r e is m o r e to c o m e . It c a n t h e r e f o r e b e e x p l o i t e d as a s o - c a l l e d " i n e o m p l e t i o n m a r k e r " " (cf.

C o u l t h a r d " 1 9 8 5 : 6 4 ) , f u n c t i o n i n g a n a l o g o u s l y to m o r e e l a b o r a t e s i g n a l s l i k e /V/ like to make

two points o r s i m p l e r m a r k e r s s u c h as //, since or firstly. W h e n a s p e a k e r h a s u t t e r e d a d i s c o u r s e

m a r k e r t h a t , at l eas t i n p r i n c i p l e 1 , i m p l i e s a f u r t h e r c o n t i n u a t i o n a n d e l a b o r a t i o n o n t h e s p e a k ­

e r ' s pa r t , h e o r s h e m a n a g e s to r e s e r v e t h e r i g h t to s p e a k f o r a n e x t e n d e d a m o u n t o l t i m e . S i n c e

a f t e r a n a n n o u n c e m e n t l i k e to begin with it w o u l d b e r a t h e r i m p o l i t e to i n t e r r u p t t h e c u r r e n t

s p e a k e r r i g h t at t h e e n d o f h i s o r h e r l i r s t s e n t e n c e , it f u n c t i o n s i n ef fect as a k i n d o l f l o o r -

s e c u r i n g d e v i c e .

S e c o n d l y , a c c o r d i n g to t h e C O B I IU I ) d i c t i o n a r y , to begin ivith is u s e d

e s p e c i a l l y w h e n y o u w a n t to c o r r e c t s o m e t h i n g tha t s o m e o n e e l s e h a s j u s t s a i d E G To

begin with, the invitation for eight really means eight-thirty to nine.

T h i s c o r r e c t i n g f u n c t i o n o f to begin ivith is p r o b a b l y r e s t r i c t e d to s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n d i s ­

c o u r s e a n d is t h e r e f o r e no t r e c o r d e d i n o u r c o r p u s , w h i c h is d e r i v e d f r o m w r i t t e n t e x t s .

U l t i m a t e l y , it is a m a t t e r o f c o n j e c t u r e w h e t h e r t h e c o r r e c t i n g f u n c t i o n , w h i c h is u n d o u b t e d l y

s o m e t i m e s i n t e n d e d by s p e a k e r s , is d e r i v e d f r o m t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e i d i o m o r f r o m its t e x t u a l

f u n c t i o n , p e r h a p s t h e f u n c t i o n as a n i n e o m p l e t i o n m a r k e r . B e tha t as it m a y , it s e e m s t o h e t h e

(vise that t h e c o r r e c t i o n f u n c t i o n a n d t h e use as i n e o m p l e t i o n m a r k e r t a k e n t o g e t h e r , h a v e l e d

to uses o f to begin with w h i c h we w o u l d l i k e to i n t e r p r e t as " " l i n g u i s t i c t h r e a t e n i n g g e s t u r e s " . B y

t h i s t e r m w e r e f e r to s i t u a t i o n s — p r o b a b l y f a m i l i a r to t h e r e a d e r — w h e r e we a r e d e s p e r a t e l y

s e e k i n g a r g u m e n t s f o r r e f u t i n g s o m e o n e e l s e ' s s t a t e m e n t . T o g a i n t i m e a n d to i n t i m i d a t e t h e

o t h e r p e r s o n w e b e g i n o u r u t t e r a n c e w i t h to begin with, t h u s c r e a t i n g t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t w e

h a v e a w h o l e l i s t of a r g u m e n t s i n s t o r e w h i c h w e w i l l a d v a n c e to s u p p o r t o u r p o i n t o f v i e w .

S i n c e , h o w e v e r , w e a r e i n fact p a r t i c u l a r l y s h o r t o f a r g u m e n t s , w h a t w e d o is i n e f fect i m p o s e

o n t h e o t h e r p e r s o n . U n d e r s u c h s i t u a t i o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , to begin ivith is u s e d t o f e i g n

a r g u i n g p o w e r : it c a r i b e s a i d to f u n c t i o n as a l i n g u i s t i c t h r e a t e n i n g g e s t u r e .

1. To begin with, to start with, for a st<irt

It is r a t h e r o b v i o u s tha t to begin with r e s e m b l e s t w o o t h e r f o r m a l l y c o m p l e x d i s c o u r s e m a r k ­

e r s , v i z . to start ivith a n d for a start. H o w a r e t h e t h r e e r e l a t e d to e a c h o t h e r ? E i r s t o f a l l , it m u s t

be m e n t i o n e d tha t d u e to t h e s h o r t a g e o f e x a m p l e s i n t h e U O B a n d S a n f o r d ( 1 9 8 5 ) , o u r o b s e r ­

v a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n h a v e to r e l y o n t h e e x a m p l e s p r o v i d e d by d i c t i o n a r i e s a n d o n

t h e j u d g m e n t o f n a t i v e s p e a k e r s . In t h e U O B , to start with d o e s not o c c u r at a l l a n d for a start

w a s r e c o r d e d o n l y t h r e e t i m e s . In S a n t o n i ( 1 9 8 5 ) , t h e r e a r e t w o e x a m p l e s o l to start ivith a n d

n o n e o f for a start. H o w c a n t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r e n c e of to begin

with o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d to start with a n d for a start o n t h e o t h e r be e x p l a i n e d ? In t h i s s e c ­

t i o n , we w i l l c o n s i d e r a) s e m a n t i c , b) s t y l i s t i c a n d c) f u n c t i o n a l a s p e c t s w h i c h s e e m t o b e r e ­

s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c y of to begin with, to start with a n d for a start.

a) W h a t , i n s e m a n t i c t e r m s , is t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e v e r b s begin a n d starti In a n e a r l i e r

s tudv ( S c h m i d 1 9 9 3 ) . t h e i n t e r n a l c a t e g o r y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t w o v e r b s w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d . T h e d a t a

f o r th i s r e s e a r c h c o n s i s t e d o f 3 1 8 e x a m p l e s of start a n d 4 7 2 e x a m p l e s o f begin t a k e n f r o m t h e

U O B . A l l 7 9 0 o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e t w o v e r b s w e r e s u b j e c t e d to a c o m p u t e r - a i d e d c o n t e x t u a l a n a l -

12 ì.ipka - Seh ι ìli (I

ys i s w h i c h t o o k i n t o a c c o u n t v a r i o u s s e m a n t i c a n d g r a m m a t i c a l f e a t u r e s d c d u c i h l c f r o m t h e i r

l i n g u i s t i c e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s l u d v a r e s u m m a r i / e d i n f i g u r e ( I ) , w h e r e t e n t a t i v e

l a b e l s l o r t h e s u b c a t e g o r i e s o l t h e v e r b s a r e r e n d e r e d i n q u o t a t i o n m a r k s , w h i l e t h e i r m e a n i n g

is s c h e m a t i c a l l y s p e c i f i e d by m e a n s o l s e m a n t i c f e a t u r e s o r a t t r i b u t e s .

f i g u r e I s h o w s tha t b o t h start o n t h e left h a n d s i d e a n d begin o n t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e d i s p l a y

n e t w o r k s of s u b c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h o v e r l a p i n a f a m i l y r e s e m b l a n c e f a s h i o n (cf. R o s e l i & M e r v i s

1 9 7 5 ) . In t e r m s o l I r e q u e n e y of o c c u r r e n c e , b o t h v e r b s m e r g e i n a c o m m o n p r o t o t y p i c a l c o r e

r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e d i a g r a m b y t h e b o l d b o x . T h e m e a n i n g o f t h i s s h a r e d p r o t o t y p i c a l s u b c a t e ­

g o r y c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by t h e a t t r i b u t e s i n c h o a t i v e ' a n d ' d y n a m i c ' , w i t h start t e n d i n g t o w a r d s

' a g e n t i v e ' c o n t e x t s a n d begin t o w a r d s Ί ι οη -agen t i v e * c o n t e x t s . In o t h e r w o r d s , b o t h start a n d

begin m o s t f r e q u e n t l y d e n o t e b e g i n n i n g s o l a c t i o n s (start: 6 7 . 6 % . begin: 9 3 . 4 % o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e

t o t a l o f o c c u r r e n c e s ) ; h o w e v e r , e v e n w i t h i n t h i s s h a r e d m e a n i n g ( w h o s e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r ­

r e n c e l e a d s to t h e " n a i v e " ν i e w t h a t start a n d begin a r e s y n o n y m s ) , begin d'ilici^ f r o m start i n

t h a t begin o f t e n t a k e s t h e a g en t o u t o l l o c u s , l o r a n i l l u s t r a t i o n c o m p a r e e x a m p l e s (13) a n d

( 1 1 ) :

( 13) T h e r a c e b e g a n .

( I f ) T h e s p r i n t e r s s t a r t e d to r u n .

C l e a r l v , t h e t w o v e r b s a r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e i n t h e t w o s e n t e n c e s , bu t t h e s t a t i s t i c a l e v i d e n c e

s h o w s t h a t K n g l i s h s p e a k e r s p r e f e r begin i n n o n - a g e n t i v e a n d e r g a l i v e c o n t e x t s l i k e (13) a n d

start i n t h e c a n o n i c a l a g e n l i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n l i k e (14 ) .

start a race •ausat iv i *

f i a t a r t i . ' " " I c a u s a t i v e ]

I "set m m o t i o n I c a u s a t i v e

" o f a n a n i m a l : force to leave its l a i r " causât ive

" s e t in m o t i o n o! an eng ine , esp. a ca r : start n i n n i m i

" o l an a n i m a l : leave its l a i r d\ n a m . , l o c omo t i v e

"s tar t a race d v n a i n . . l o c omo t i v e . com|>etil ive

"s tar t n i n n i m i

d v n a i n . . l o c o m o t i v e

" o l the eve>: p r o t r u d e d v n a i i i .

f i i iurat i ve

f "set u p in l u i s i 1 ness " c ans .

" I l eum a career c ou t i n . . f iuura t . . pro fess .

{ c ans . , i ns t i t . ( " i n t r o d u c e l e a n s . , d y n a u i .

"set out ( f i l l . ) " c o n i i n . , a l i e n i . . m e n t a l

sr-urr " s ta r t l i m e unit c a u s a t i v e

" I l e u m as i n d i o , t emp . , m a n n e r , result

c o m m . . d v u a u i . .

Ί I.M-«

j u m p

• l\ n a m .

l e i i i p o r a l / l o c a l i v e / i i i a n n e r

incho !

« 1 \ 11 ; 1111 i « -

set uci in i i m c o n v e r s a t i o n ine l i o . v e r b a l . c ausa t i v e

in i n ­itient ive

p n . e e »

I s p e a k "

"set out — χ f i l l i "

c o m . , m e n t a l

incli<».. v e rba l

F i g u r e 1: S c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l c a t e g o r y s t r u c t u r e ol\ start a n d begin ( S c h m i d

1 9 9 3 : 2 6 8 )

lo begin tritìi 13

\ et t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n m e a n i n g is m i n u t e c o m p a r e d l o t h e s e m a n t i c c o n t r a s t r e c o g n i z a b l e i n

t h e rest o l t h e c a t e g o r y n e t w o r k . Q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , e v e n a c u r s o r y g l a n c e at t h e d i a g r a m w i l l s h o w

tha t w h e r e a s t h e c a t e g o r y s t r u c t u r e oï start is h i g h l y c o m p l e x , b r a n c h i n g ou t i n v a r i o u s p o l y s e -

m o u s c h a i n s , t h e u s e o f begin is c o n f i n e d to a r a t h e r l i m i t e d a r e a . S e m a n t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , begin

is u s e d m o r e o f t e n t h a n start for g r a d u a l b e g i n n i n g s , m o s t l y i n t h e c o g n i t i v e o r e m o t i v e

d o m a i n s , a n d l o r c o n t e x t s i n v o l v i n g s p e a k i n g a n d t a l k i n g . T h u s , t h e L O B d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t s t a ­

t i s t i c a l l y p e o p l e p r e f e r ( I S ) . (16 ) , (17) a n d (18) to ( 15 ' ) , ( 16 ' ) , (17 ' ) a n d (18 ' ) .

(15) T h e p a t t e r n b e g a n to e m e r g e ... ( L O B G 4 9 105 )

(16) T h e n I b e g a n to t h i n k . ( L O B G 0 9 161)

(17) H e b e g a n to f ee l l i m p ... ( L O B Κ 2 7 9 5 )

(18) ' L o o k h e r e * , h e b e g a n , ... ( L O B L 1 1 124 )

(IS*) T h e p a t t e r n s t a r t e d to e m e r g e ...

(16") T h e n I s t a r t e d to t h i n k .

(17*) l i e s t a r t e d to fee l l i m p ...

(18 ' ) * c L o o k h e r e ' , h e s t a r t e d , ...

Start, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is u s e d to d e n o t e d y n a m i c a n d o f t e n s u d d e n b e g i n n i n g s o f a c t i o n s . I n

a d d i t i o n , a n d t h i s is i n fact r e l a t e d to i ts e t y m o l o g i c a l o r i g i n O K styrtan, " j u m p * e t c . , start l e a v e s

t h e i n c h o a t i v e a r e a a n d c o v e r s a w h o l e r a n g e o f p u r e l y d y n a m i c , f i g u r a t i v e a n d c a u s a t i v e m e a n ­

i n g s .

T h i s m a j o r s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n begin a n d start, w h i c h m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n a h i g h e r

f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e for begin i n m e n t a l c o n t e x t a n d w h e n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f s p e a k i n g is

d e n o t e d , f i ts i n n i c e l y w i t h o u r f i n d i n g s c o n c e r n i n g to begin ivith a n d to start ivith. W e h a v e

s e e n tha t e i t h e r o f t h e f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n s c a n h e u s e d to r e f e r to t h e s t r u c t u r i n g o f d i s c o u r s e o r

fo r o t h e r l i n g u i s t i c a n d m e t a l i n g u i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s . It c a n t h e r e f o r e h a r d l y c o m e as a s u r p r i s e t h a t

t h e l i x e d e x p r e s s i o n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e v e r b w h i c h s p e c i a l i z e s i n t h i s t y p e o l c o n t e x t is m o r e f r e ­

q u e n t . In fac t , t h e p a r a l l e l i n t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n begin a n d start o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d to

begin ivith a n d to start ivith o n t h e o t h e r , c a n h e r e g a r d e d as f u r t h e r s u p p o r t f o r o u r c l a i m t h a t

t h e t i es b e t w e e n t h e o r i g i n a l a n d t h e l e x i c a l i z e d m e a n i n g o f a f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n a r e n o t c o m ­

p l e t e l y s e v e r e d .

b) In a d d i t i o n to these 1 s e m a n t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t i n * s t y l e o f t h e t e x t s w e h a v e u s e d c o u l d h e a

d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r f o r t h e d i l f e r e n c e i n f r e q u e n c y b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n s .

A c c o r d i n g to t h e j u d g m e n t of n a t i v e s p e a k e r s , begin is c o n s i d e r e d to be s l i g h t l y more f o r m a l

t h a n start, a n d is t h e r e f o r e e v e n t o d a y p r e l e r r e d i n w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e , w h e n t h e t w o a r e s e m a n t i ­

c a l l y i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . The s a m e p r o b a b l y a p p l i e s to t h e f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e t w o

v e r b s , ' a n d so t h e s h o r t a g e o l to start ivith a n d for a start i n o u r w r i t t e n tex t c o r p o r a m a y n o t h e

a c o i n c i d e n c e .

c) K i n a l l y , it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e to d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s t h a t a l l t h r e e

d i s c o u r s e m a r k e r s c a n h a v e . T a k e t h e m e s s a g e - s t r u c t u r i n g f u n c t i o n . U n d o u b t e d l y , t h e m e n t a l

c h u n k i n g a n d s t r u c t u r i n g o f a n u t t e r a n c e i n t o v a r i o u s p o i n t s tha t w i l l be m a d e r e q u i r e s at l eas t

a m i n i m a l a m o u n t o f p r e p l a n n i n g a c t i v i t y . W e w o u l d t h e r e f o r e e x p e c t tha t t h e a n n o u n c i n g f u n c ­

t i o n of to begin ivith, to start with a n d for a start is p a r t i c u l a r l y d o m i n a n t i n h i g h l y - e d i t e d w r i t ­

t e n tex ts a n d m a y b e i n t h e s p e e c h o l e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s s u c h as p o l i t i c i a n s a n d l e c t u r e r s ,

f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f text g e n r e s , h o w e v e r , ( h i s k i n d o f t e x t u a l o u t p u t a g a i n b e l o n g s to

r a t h e r l o r m a l t ex t t y p e s w h e r e begin a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y to begin with w i l l t e n d to o c c u r m o r e

o f t e n t h a n to start with a n d for a start. C o n v e r s e l y , t h e c o r r e c t i n g f u n c t i o n a n d t h e i m p o s i n g

t h r e a t e n i n g g e s t u r e w i l l m o r e o f t en be e x p l o i t e d i n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n s p e e c h , w h e r e start is

m o r e f r e q u e n t l y c h o s e n . S o e v e r y d a y u n p l a n n e d d i s c o u r s e is t h e a r e a w h e r e w e w o u l d a l s o

e x p e c t for a start a n d to start with to c r o p u p m o s t e n o f t e n .

14 Lif)k(i - Sdì ni id

A l t o g e t h e r , w e h a v e p r o v i d e d a i i u m h e r o l e x p l a n a t i o n s (or t h e h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y o l o c c u r ­

r e n c e o f to begin nith o v e r to start nith a n d for a start, w h i c h , h o w e v e r , c a n h a r d l y he p r o v e d

b y r e f e r e n c e to o u r w o r k i n g c o r p u s .

5. S u m m a r y a n d c o n c l u s i o n

W h a t h a v e w e b e e n a b l e to f i n d o u t a b o u t t h e f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n to begin with? W e h a v e t r i e d

to s h o w t h a t it w o u l d b e m i s l e a d i n g to t h i n k o f to begin -with as a n e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h h a s o n e

s p e c i f i c i d i o m a t i c m e a n i n g . I n s t e a d w e w o u l d l i k e to p r o p o s e a ( d ine o f i d i o m a t i e i t y . r a n g i n g

f r o m l i t e r a l uses o f t h e s e q u e n c e to begin with o v e r uses w h i c h o n l y i n t r o d u c e o r a n n o u n c e a

l i s t , to f u l l y i d i o m a t i z e d uses , w h i c h d o n o t o n l y e x h i b i t s p e c i f i c s e m a n t i c , f o r m a l , s y n t a c t i c a n d

p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , bu t a l s o p e r f o r m o n e o r m o r e t e x t u a l a n d p r a g m a t i c f u n c t i o n s , l i v e n

a m o n g t h e c l e a r l y i d i o m a t i c uses , it s e e m s p o s s i b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n m o r e o r less i d i o m a ­

t i z e d e x a m p l e s , e. g. b e t w e e n t h o s e i n v o l v i n g t h e c o r r e c t i n g f u n c t i o n o r w h a t w e h a v e c a l l e d t h e

l i n g u i s t i c t h r e a t e n i n g g e s t u r e o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h o s e w h i c h s i m p l y i n t r o d u c e a n e n u m e r a t ­

i n g g r i d , s t r u c t u r i n g t h e t ex t , o n t h e o t h e r .

T h e i d e a o f a g r a d i e n t o f i d i o m a t i e i t y o f c o u r s e r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e d i a c h r o n i c

l e x i c a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , w h i c h h a s l e a d to t h e i d i o m a t i c u s e o f to begin with, m i g h t o r e v e n m u s t

h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h t h e s a m e s tages . T h e e a r l i e s t r e c o r d o f to begin with i n t h e O E D da t e s f r o m

t h e y e a r 1 5 3 1 :

A n d , t o b e g i n w i t h a l , t h e y s a i d Confiteor.

A s i n d i c a t e d by t h e q u o t a t i o n a n d a l s o p o i n t e d o u t i n t h e O E D , t h e e a r l i e r v e r s i o n o f t o begin

with was to begin withal. T h i s c a n be s e e n as a (due t h a t h i s t o r i c a l l y , to begin with is no t d e ­

r i v e d f r o m „ n o r m a l 4 4 uses of ίο begin ivith b u t h a s p r o b a b l y f u n c t i o n e d as a n a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e

r i g h t f r o m t h e s ta r t . A s fa r as t h e v a r i o u s s e m a n t i c , g r a m m a t i c a l , t e x t u a l a n d p r a g m a t i c p r o p ­

e r t i e s o f t h e m o d e r n to begin with a r e c o n c e r n e d , t h e O E D p r o v i d e s n o f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e of

t h e i r e v o l u t i o n . W h e t h e r t h e p r o g r e s s i o n t o w a r d s s e m a n t i c a n d p r a g m a t i c c o m p l e x i t y t h a t w e

h a v e o u t l i n e d h a s a d i a c h r o n i c p a r a l l e l m u s t t h e r e f o r e r e m a i n a m a t t e r o f s p e c u l a t i o n .

F i n a l l y , a b s t r a c t i n g f r o m t h e e x a m p l e s t h a t w e h a v e d e a l t w i t h , w e h o p e to h a v e s h o w n tha t

a n i s o l a t e d s e m a n t i c a n d / o r s y n t a c t i c a n a l y s i s o f f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n s c l e a r l y is n o t a d e q u a t e a n y

m o r e i n t h e n i n e t i e s . A s F i l l m o r e et a l . ( 1 9 8 8 ) h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r t h e case o f let alone, it is

n o t o n l y u s e f u l a n d i n s t r u c t i v e , b u t e v e n n e c e s s a r y , to t a k e t e x t u a l a n d p r a g m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

i n t o a c c o u n t , w h e n s u c h a p p a r e n t l y s i m p l e i d i o m s a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d .

1 It is not u n c o m m o n , for example, in a discussion fo l lowing a lecture, that the speaker cou ld answer a

scries o l questions by saying: to take up your last point first.

2 F o r various l inguists who have recognized that there arc degrees of idiomatie i ty, as for example in leaser 's

" f rozen ness h i e r a r chy " postulated in 1970, cf. I. ipka (1974).

3 Note that the comma after next indicates a pause, as in (4), and as opposed to (10).

4 It is worth ment ion ing that in fact seven of the ten examples of to begin nith in Sa η ford (1985) follow the

same pattern. Th i s shows the danger of re ly ing too much on a smal l number of authors, because obviously

writers have predi lect ions for certain wordings they habi tual ly use. O n the other hand, this is a strong

argument for using text corpora wh i ch consist of language samples of different origins as e. g. the F O B

corpus.

5 A l l e n (1990) and Q u i r k et a l . (1985) mark for a start as colloq. and informal respectively.

R e f e r ence s

A l l e n , R i cha rd R. (1990), T h e Concise Ox ford Dict ionary of Current Eng l i sh , 8 th . ed., Oxford .

C o u l t h a r d , Ma l cohn (1985: 1977), A n Introduct ion to Discourse Analys is , 2nd . ed., L o n d o n - N e w Yo rk .

F i l lmo r e , Char les J . , P. Kay, & M.C. O 'Conno r (1988), "Regu la r i t y and Idiomatieity in Grammat i ca l

Construct ions : The Case of Let A l o n e " , Language 61 , 50 I—538.

lo begin ivith I S

(/rimili . I rsula (1991). L ex ika l i s i e rung im heutigen Engl isch am Beispie l der ER-Ab l e i tungen . Tübingen.

Hal l iday . M i chae l Λ. K. »\ Ru<|aiya Hasan ( 1976). Cohes ion in Eng l i sh , L o n d o n - N e w Yo rk .

Ke l l e r . Er ic (1981), " (/ambits: Conversat ional Strategy Signals"' , in I*. Cou lmas , ed., Conversat ional Rou t ine ,

The Hague etc., 9 3 - 1 13.

Le i tzke . Eva (1989). (De)nominale Adjekt ive im heutigen Eng l i sch . Untersuchungen zur Morpho log i e , Syntax ,

Semantik und Pragmat ik von Ad j ek t i v -Nomen Komb ina t i onen der Tvpen atomic energy und criminal /mcver, Tübingen.

L i p k a , L eonhard (1974), „Probleme der Analyse engl ischer Idioms aus s t rukture l l e r und generativer S i eh t " ,

L inguist ik und D i d a k t i k 20. 2 7 4 - 2 8 5 .

L i p k a . Leonhard (1991). Review of Schi f f r in (1987). Ang l ia 109. 1 4 8 - 1 5 1 .

(^uirk. Rando lph et a l . (1985), A Comprehens ive G r a m m a r of the Engl ish Language, L o n d o n - N e w Y o r k .

Rosel i , E l eonor & C a r o l i n Β. Mervis (1975), " f a m i l y Resemblances: Studies in the Internal S t ruc ture of

Categories" . Cogni t ive Psychology 8, 573—605.

Sanford. An thony J . (1985). Cogni t ion and Cognit ive Psychology, New Yo rk .

S c h i f i m i , Deborah (1987), Discourse Markers , Cambr idge .

S c h m i d . Hans-Jörg (1993). Cottage und Co. , Idea, Start vs. begin. Die Kategor is ierung als G r u n d p r i n z i p e iner

di f ferenzierten Bedeutungsbeschre ibung, Tübingen.

Searle. John R. (1976), \ Classi f icat ion of I l locut ionary Ac t s " , Language in Society 5. 1—24.

S inc la i r . John et a l . (1987), Co l l ins C o b u i l d Eng l i sh Language Dic t ionary , L o n d o n . (Cobuild)

Summers , Del la et a l . (1978; 1987), L ongman Dict ionary of Contemporary Eng l i sh , 2nd ed., Har low etc.

( LDCE )

Tay lor , John R. (1989), L inguis t i c Categor izat ion. Prototypes in L inguis t i c Theory , Ox ford .

Tsohatz id is , Savas L., ed. (1990), Meanings and Prototypes. Studies on l inguist ic categorizat ion, Ox ford .

Wierzb ieka . A n n a (1990) " 'Prototypes Save": on the Uses and Abuses of the Not ion of "Prototype* in

Linguist ics and Related E ie lds " . In: S.L. Tsohatz id is , ed., Meanings and Prototypes. Studies on L ingu i s t i c

Categor izat ion, Ox fo rd , 347—367.