Steuer 1992

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JOU rnal

of’

Cbmmunication,

A

U t U

rnri 1992

VR,” depending on whether it includes a minimal corpus

of

particular

machines. Second, such a definition provides no clear conceptual unit

o f

analysis for virtual reality.

If

virtual reality consists

o f

a hardware system,

where do we look to identify a single virtual reality? Examining the techno-

logical apparatus alone

does

not seem adequate for this purpose. A third

and related problem

is

the lack of theoretical dimensions across which vir-

tual reality can vary. All systems meeting the basic hardware requirements

are VR, and all others are not-VR. However, once this initial classification

has tieen made, such a dichotomous definition offers n o suggestion of how

systems classified as not-VK may resemble those that are VR, nor how dif-

ferent VR systems can be compared

to

each other. In the absence of a clear

theoretical unit or any relevant dimensions for study,

it

is difficult

to

per-

form social science research that addresses the similarities and differences

among various VR systems, or that examines virtual reality in relation t o

other media.

Probably the most effective solution t o the problems with the current

usage of

virtual reality

would be to abandon i t entirely, in favor o f

a

more

theoretically grounded term. However, as the name

of

this symposium

demonstrates, the term has persisted in academic as well as popular usage.

It is therefore nece ry

t o

form a theoretically useful concept out of virtual

reality. This paper is an effort t o fill this need, addressing the aforemen-

tioned faults by defining virtual reality as a particular type of experience,

rather than as a collection

o f

hardware. Defining virtual reality in this way

will provide (a) a concrete unit of analysis for virtual reality, (b) a set

o f

dimensions over which virtual reality can vary, and , perhaps most impor-

tantly, (c>a means for examining virtual reality in relation to other types of

mediated experience.

Defining

Virtual

R e a l i t y

M o s t popular definitions o f virtual reality make reference to a particular

technological system. This system usually includes a computer capable of

real-time animation, controlled by a set of wired gloves and a position

tracker, and using a head-mounted stereoscopic display for visual output.3

The following are three examples

of

such definitions:

Virtual Reality is electronic simulations of eravironments experienced via

head-mounted eye

goggle.^

and wired clothing enahlirzg the end

user to

irzteruct in realistic three-dimensional situations.

(Coates, 1992)

(cont.) theoretical limitations

of

object-centered views

o f

technology, and o f the importmce of

variable-bnscd strategies in overcoming these limitations.

’ See Hiocca

(1992)

for a thorough description o f the h:rrdm~ire involved in

such

systems, and

for a brief review

of

the perceptual processes involved in the creation o f such hardware.

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Virtual Raid@ is

an

alternuto

uv)rld,filled with

computer-generated images

that respond

to

human movemcws.

These

simulated enoironments

are

usual&

visited ulith the aid

of an

c-ypensive data suit

ulhich

Jeature.s stercv

phonic videogoggles and fiber-optic data gloves. (Greenbaum, 1992, p. 581

-fie terms virtual worlds, virtual cockpits, and virtual workstations were

used to describe

spec<fic

rojects.

.

,

I n 1989,

Jaron Lanier, CEO qf

W L ,

coined

the

term

virtual reality to

bring all

of

the

virtual projects under a

single rubric. The term therefix? ypicully refen to three-dimensional reali-

ties implemented

with

stereo vieutng goggles and

reality glozxs. (Krueger,

1991, p . xiii)

Though these three definitions vary somewhat, all include the notions

o f

hoth electronically sirnulated environments an d “goggles ’n’gloves” systems

;IS the nieans t o access these environments. The appliication o f these ciefini-

tions (and any other definition that is similarly based on a particular harcl-

ware instantiation) is thereby limited

to

these technologies; their units

of

analysis and potential for variance are left unspecified. However, ic is possi-

Ide t o define virtual reality without reference to particular hardware .

Presence and Telcprcsen

ce

’I’he key t o defining virtual reality in terms o f human experience rather than

techno1ogic:il hardware

is

the concept

o f

presence.

Presence can be thought

o f as the experience

o f

one’s physical environment ;

it

refers not to one’s

surroundings as they exist in the physical world,

h i t

t o the perception o f

those surroundings ;IS mediatecl

b y

Iwth automatic arid controlled mental

processes (Gitxon, 1979): Presence is defined

as

the scwse of beiiig in

mi

cwuironment. Many perceptual factors help

to

genera te this s ense, includ-

ing input from so me o r all sensory channels, as

well a s

more mindful atten-

tional, perceptual, and other mental processes that assimilate incoming sen-

sory data with current concerns and past experiences (Gi lxon,

1966).

Presence is closely related

to

the phenomenon of distal attribution or exter-

nalzzation,

which refer t o the referencing of our perceptions t o an external

space 1)eyoncl the limits o f the sen wry organs themselves ([momis, 1992).

In unmediated perception, presence is taken for granted: What could on e

experience other than one’s

iininedirite

physical surroundings? However,

when perception is niecliated by 21 communication tec:hnology, o nc is forced

t o perceive

two

separate environments simultaneously: the physical environ-

ment in which on e is actually present an d the environnient presented via

the medium.’ The term

telepresciice

can

be

used

t o

describe the precedence

f‘rcserzcc

as ~ised

ere refers t o the experience o f

natural

surroundings; that is. sui-i-oundings

in which sensory input impinges directly upon the organs of sense. ‘I‘hc term is also some-

times used

t o

descritw the mcdiatc.d cxpcrience

of :I

physical environment; this is discussed

further

helow.

’

:or the purpcws of tliis papcr, ii iornmzinication trchnok)g~~an

t x

defined as :my nieans of

representing information across sp:ice

o r

:icross time. Mcdia/Cd commiinica tioii

/ C o n t i n i d /

75

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Telepresence

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o f

the latter experience in favor o f the former; that is, telepresence is the

extent

t o

which one feels present in the mediated environment, rather than

in the immediate physical environment. Telepresence is de3nt.d as the expe-

rience qfpresence in an environment

b y

means

of

a communication

medium. In other words, presence refers to the natural perception of an

environment, and telepresence refers to the mediated perception of an envi-

ronment.

This

environment can be either ;i temporally or spatially distant

real environment (for instance, a d nt space viewed through a video cam-

era ), or an animated but nonexistent uirtztal uiorld synthesized h y a coni-

puter (for instance, the animated world created in a video game). Reeves

( 1991), in a discussion o f responses

to

television, describes this experience

as

a sense

of

“being there.” He claims that a combination o f automatic per-

ceptual processes, mindful direction

of

attention, and conscious processes

such

as

narratization all contribute t o our perceiving mediated experiences

;is real.‘’

presence is similar

to

some, but no t all, previous uses of the term. It was

coined h y Marvin Minsky (1980) in reference t o teleoperation systems for

remote manipulation o f physical objects. Sheridan and Furness (1992) have

continued this tradition by adopting the name Presence (rather than Tele

presence) for

;I

new journal dedicated to the study

o f

both teleoperator and

virtual environment systems. In the first issue

of

the journal, an ent ire sec-

tion is devoted

to

the concept

of

telepresence . Sheridan

(1992)

uses the

term prcwnce

to

refer t o the generic perception of being in an artificial or

remote environment , reserving telepresenceonly for cases involving teleop-

eration. However, in the same section of the journal, Held and Durlach

(1992) use telepresencc to refer to the experience common

t o

both teleoper-

ation and virtual environments. The broader term is used here in order

t o

highlight the similarities, rather than differences, between teleoperation and

virtual environments.

By eniploying the concept of telepresence, virtual reality can now be

defined without reference to a particular hardware system: A vil.ltualreality

is &fined

us

a real or simulated environment in which a perceiver expert-

The use o f the terni telepraence t o refer t o any medium-induced sense

o f

and mediatd

experience

are therefore considered t o be essentially equivalent. Again, this is ;I

very tiroad clefinition that differs from rnany typical views.

‘I

This is not

t o SAY

that people are “fooled” into lielieving that television o r other mccli;ited

experiences are real. However, two distinct research programs currently underway

:it

Stanford

have demonstrated that in ccrtain contexts, people respond

t o

mediated stimuli in ways simi-

1;ir to their rea-life counterparts. The r rrch on “being therc,” led by Byron Reevrs, includes

a study that suggests that images

o f

faces presented on

a

television screen evoke siniil;ir

rules

of intcrpersond space as clo actual faces (Reeves, Lombard, Melwani, 19921, as \veil

as a

study to determine the effects

o f

representing auditory and visual fidelity and spatial charac-

teristics in engendering real-world-like responses from televised m

for a description) The “Computer :IS Social Actor” project, led h y

that computers can evoke social responses similar

t o

those evoked

situations

where

there IS no logical explanation for such behavior s

sen,

1992).

76

lournal of’Comrnunication,Autumn

1992

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Traditional View

Telepresence View

virtual

reality

Figure 1

Two

models of mediated communication. After Krueger, 1991, p. 37.

L J I Z C C Se1cqbrescnce.-

Admittedly, this definition

does

not

mesh precisely

with

typical

uses o f

the term. Indeed, given the broad definitions

o f

the concepts

involved, this definition

o f

virtu:tl reality includes practically

all

rnetliated

experience.

I n

so

doing,

it

suggests a n alternative

view

o f

mediated commii-

nication in general. Tr:dition:illy, the process o f conmimication is descrilxcl

in terms

o f

the transmission

o f

information,

as a proccss

linking sender and

receiver.x Media are therefore important only

as a

conduit, :IS

:

means

o f

connecting sende r

m c l

receiver, an d :ire only interesting to the extent that

they contribute

t o o r

otherwise interfere with the transmission o f

rile

I first encoiintereci

;I

5imil;ir clef in i t ion

o f

vivtiial reality

in

;I

posting t o t hc \Y ELL

c o n i p u t e r

Ien1 h)-

Howard lllieingoltl, tlatecl M a y 23, 19913. R h e i n g o l c l s

I ook

LTr-lzral

i n

e xc e l l e n t s u m q o f t h e history of

virtu:ll

reality.

xamples

o f niodels nieeting

th is

genei-al

dcxcription

can

be

l'ound

in

IkFlci.ir

:incI

I3:tll-

Rokeach,

1989;

5clir:iniiii.

1974;

S1i:innon

and Weaver , 1962; o r in :rny introductory

coinmuni-

cation

tex t .

77

Symposium

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Telepresence

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from sender

to

receiver. In contrast, the telepresence view focuses attention

on the relationship between an individual who is both a sender and

a

receiver. and on the mediated environment with which he

or

she interacts.

Information is not transmitted from sender to receiver; rather, mediated

environments are created and then experienced (see Sheridan,

1992). See

Figure

1

for a graphical presentation of the contrast between these two

views of mediated communication.

Virtual Realities and Media

The machines mentioned in previous definitions of virtual reality (comput-

ers, position sensors, hex-m oun te d displays, etc.) are all relatively recent

developments. However, the definition o f virtual reality as telepresence can

be applied

to

past, present, and future media technologies. Consider, for

example, the telephone. Most users take for granted the possibility

o f

talk-

ing to people who are not physically present as if they were in the same

room.‘ But imagine this scene (adapted from the film Being 7bere [Ashby

Kozinski, 19791):

You

receive yourfirst-ever telephone call.

You

are handed the telephone

and

la ?

it toyour ear.

You

hear nothing, and exclaim, “Noone is there.”

A

.friend standing nearby takes the rceive?; speaks into it, and hands it back

to you.

“Oh

yes, hek there,”.your riend replies. You look atyour.fritmd

quizzically, then point

to

the telephorie,point to

.your

immediate sur-

roundings, and inquire, “Where s he? There or here?”

HOWcan one explain the seemingly bizarre ability to speak t o someone

who is not present by means

of

talking into a piece of plastic? Of course, as

mentioned above, this process can be conceived in terms of senders,

receivers, and messages. However, such an explanation fails to account for

the odd experience o f speaking

to

someone who is not actually there.

Where does such a conversation take place? The most plausible conceptual

model is that

both

parties, by means

of

the telephone, are electronically pre-

sent in t h e same virtual reality created by the telephone system. A few addi-

tional examples illustrate this difference with respect

t o

a number o f differ-

ent media:

Keading a letter from a distant friend or colleague can evoke a sense

o f

presence in the environment in which the letter was written, or can

make

the distant party seem locally present. This feeling can occur even

when one is unfamiliar with the remote physical surroundings.

When people telephone an airline using a toll-free number

to

make

reservations

for

a flight, they often ask the operator where he

o r

she

‘’ olni ou sl y, telephone-mediated communication is

not

exactly the same as face-to-fricc coni-

miinication:

only

auditory cues are provided

over

the telephone,

and

even these are very

h i

itccl

in terms

of

dynamic range and frequency spectrum. However, there is still i ense in

which the experiences are quite similar.

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1992

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“really is.”They d o this tx cau se they are uncomfortable interacting in

a

virtual reality that provides n o other contextual clues, and they there-

fore wish to create a background into which

to

place the operator’s

character.

LJsers

of

multiple electronic \>ulletin-board systems report that each sys-

tem provides a distinct sense of place.

Listening t o live recordings of music (recordings rnade during a perfor-

mance) gives the listener

a

sense

o f

presence in the room

(e.g.,

concert

hall) in which the recording was made. However, recordings made in

a

studio can also evoke such feelings, even though there was no single

performance at which a listener could have been present.

means

of a

remotely mounted movable camera, and handle radioactive

chemicals by ineans of remotely controlled mechanical hands.

Video game players describe the experience of moving an animated car

on the screen as driving.

Each

o f

these situations evokes, in

some

sense, a feeling of telepresence.

Nuclear power plant operators ohserve the inside o f the reactor b y

A similar sense can be experienced via virtually any technology used in

mediated communication. Newspapers, letters, and rriagazines place the

reader in

a

space in which the writer is telling

a

story; television places the

\tiewer in a virtual space in which lmth viewer an d om-screen objects are

present; and video games create virtual spaces in which the game--player s

an actor.

Th~ is ,he definition of virtual reality in terms of telepresence provides a

conceptual framework in which such newly deve loped tecl inologies can be

c2xainined in relation t o other media technologies. FLI thermore, defining vir-

tual reality in terms o f telep resence alleviates the th ree difficulties enumer-

ated above. First, virtual reality refers

to

an experience, rather than a

machine. The definition thereby shifts the locus

of

virtual reality from a par-

ticular hardware package to the perceptions of an individual. Second, this

clefinition specifies the unit o f analysis of virtual reality-the individuLi1-

since it consists o f an individual experience of presence. Thus, dependent

tneaswes of virtual reality must all he measures o f individual experience,

providing an obvious means o f applying knowledge about perceptu:il

processes and individual di fferences in determining the nature o f virtual

reality. Finally, since this definition

is

not technology based, it permits varia-

tion ;tcross technologies along a number

o f

dimensions. The remainder of

this paper is tledicated

t o

explicating virtual reality in relation t o such

dimensions,

Variables Predicting Virtual Reality

First-person experiences in the real world represent

a

standard

to

which all

mediated experiences are comparcd, either mindfully or otherwise: Pace-to-

f ’xe nteraction with other humans is used as a model for a11 interactive

Symposium

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communication (Durlak, 1987).The human perceptual system has been

tuned through the process

of

evolution for the perception

o f

real-world

environments. The experience o f virtual reality can be enhanced

b y

appeal-

ing

to

these same perceptual mechanisms (see Reeves, 1991

.

However,

since

it

is defined in terms

o f

an individual experience o f a particular kind,

it

is difficult to arrive at operational measures

of

telepresence

(see

Held

Ilurlach, 1992). Since telepresence is nece rily experienced by means

of

a

medium of some kind, properties of the medium will also affect the percep-

tion

of

virtual reality. Factors influencing whether a particular mediated situ-

ation will induce

a

sense

of

telepresence include the following: the coml+

nation

of

sensory stimuli employed in the environment, the ways in which

participants are able to interact with the environment, and the characteristics

of

the individual experiencing the environment, Thus, telepresence is

a

function o f both technology an d perceiver.

Sheridan (1992) identifies five variables that help induce a sense

o f

tele-

presence. Three

o f

them are technological: the extent of sensory informa-

tion, control

of

sensors relative

t o

environment, and the ability to modify

the physical environment

(see

Biocca,

1992,

Figure

3,

for a graphical clepic-

tion). The other tw o are task- or context-based: task difficulty, and degree

o f

automation. Zeltzer

(1992)

provides

a

similar niatrix

of

variables that

describe t he capabilities o f graphic simulation systems, which he terms

autonomy (h uman control), interaction (real-time control), and presence

(bandwidth

of

sensation).

Two major d imensions across which communication technologies vary

are discussed here a s determinants of telepresence. The first,

vividness,

refers to the ability

of a

technology t o produce

a

sensorially rich mediated

environment.

''

The second, inteructiuity, refers to the degree t o which users

of

a medium can influence the form or content

o f

the mediated environ-

ment. Media artist Michael Nainiark (1990) refers t o these same properties

as

realness

and

inteructiuity.

Others, including Brenda Laurel (1991) and

Howard Kheingold

(19911,

make similar distinctions. See Figure 2 for graph-

ical depictions of these two dimensions, and for mn ie of the variables that

contrilxite t o each.

When considering these dimensions, on e should remember that virtual

reality resides in an individual's consciousness; therefore, the relative contri-

bution o f each of these dimensions

to

creating a sense of environmental

presence will vary across individuals. Similarly, differences in the content

o f

the tnediated environment-that is, in the kinds o f entities represented and

in the interactions among them-will also affect the perception o f presence.

However, the variables vividness an d interactivity refer only

to

the represen-

tational powers

o f

the technology,rather than to the individual; that is, they

I

K o t e

that this clefinition does

no/

n u k e r e fe re n ce t o rese inbl ing o1)jects i n t h e r ea l w o r l d , a n d

the i-eb y :ivoicls

prohlems

in desc r ib ing

the

e x p e r i e n c e

o f

ar tif ic ia l si1u:i tions. F or inst anc e, h o w

docs

o n e t l e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r :I unicorn in

vir t i~ t l

eality

looks like

a rea l -wor ld unicorn? 13y

r e f er r ing on ly to sensory r ichness , this def in i t ion avoids such c o n c e r n s .


1992

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telepresence

vividness interactivity

Figure

2

Technological variables influencing telepresence.

determine properties

o f

the stiniiilus that will have similar but not identical

ramifications ;icross

a

range of perceivers. The remainder o f this section

considers these two dimensions in

some

detail.

I/iuidnes.s

One variable property

o f

media technologies that influences their ability t o

induce 3 sense o f presence

is

vividne

Vivid?iless

means the

rejwwvitu-

tiovial m‘chrxssqf u

mediated erwiron

nt as defined b y it.sJ?fi,rmaleutim>.s;

that

is the u1ap in ulhich an enr,ironmmlpre.sents

in@*mation o

the .scn.st~.s.

Vividness is stimulus driven, depending entirely upoin technicA characteris-

tics o f a niedium. Rafaeli

(1985) refers

to this property ;IS“transparency” (p .

9 . highly vivid rnediuni can he consiclered “hot” n the McLuhanesque

sense, as it “extends one [or many] senselsl in ‘high definition”’ (klcl,ulian,

1964]

p.

36).

Many factors contribute to vividne

important variables are discussed here: sensory breadth, which refers to the

number o f stmsory dimensions simultaneously presented, :ind sensory

depth, which refers to the resolution within each of these perceptual chan-

nels. Breadth is a function

o f

the ability o f

21

communication

m e d i u m

t o pre-

sent infornyation across the senses. J . J . Gibson (1966) defines five distinct

perceptual systems: the basic orienting system, whiclh is responsilde f o r

maintaining

I x d y

equililxium; the auditory system; the haptic, o r touch, hys

tein; the taste-smell system; and the visual system. Inputs

to

several o f these

systems from 21 single source can l x considered information:illy eqiiivalent

(Gibson, 1966). However, the redundancy resulting from simultaneous acti-

vation of

a

n u t n k r o f perceptual systems reduces the nuniber o f alternative

situations that could induce such

a

combination o f perceptions, and there-

fore strengthens the perception

o f

a

particular environment.

This concept is best illustrated b y an example.

Imagine

standing on

:I

street corner in a rainstorm. Which sense is responsible for generating

21

Two generalized but

81

Symposium

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lournu1o/

Cornmumcatton. Autumn

1992

sense of presence in that environment? The haptic system is activated by

raindrops hitting the body, but

a

similar sensation could result from being

sprayed by a nearby sprinkler. Similarly, the smell o f a soggy dog standing

nearby could result from other situations. But when these perceptions occur

simultaneously with the image o f raindrops falling on the streets and the

buildings, the sound

of

raindrops hitting the ground and cars driving across

wet pavement, and the taste

o f

wet diesel exhaust from passing buses, one

clearly has a sense

of

being on a street corner in the rain. The vividness of

the street corner scene is not generated by any single sensory input alone,

but by the simultaneous juxtaposition of all sensory input. Often, redundant

information is presented siinultmeously: One hears an explosion, sees the

flash, and smells the smoke simultaneously. This redundancy serves

t o

fur-

ther enhance vividne

Traditional media such as print, telephone, television, and film are rela-

tively

low

in breadth, relying primarily on the visual and auditory channels.

However, some artists have attempted to expand these boundaries. Films

such as Earthquake (Robson, 1974) and The Tingler (Castle, 1959) included

vibrating devices attached to theater seats in order t o add haptic sensation.

The film Polyester (Waters, 1981)

was

originally presented in “odoramd”-on

entering the theater, theatergoers were presented with a scratch-and-sniff

card and were instructed t o smell certain scents at appropriate points during

the film. One notable example

of

an attempt to provide great sensory

breadth in

a

mediated presentation

is

the Sensorama device developed by

Mort Heilig

(see

Krueger, 1991, and Rheingold, 1991, for more detailed

descriptions). This arcade-game-style simulator utilizes four of the five

senses t o simulate a motorcycle ride: LJsers see the Manhattan streets go by,

hear the roar

of

the motorcycle and the sounds of the street, smell the

exhaust

of

other cars and pizza cooking in roadside restaurants, and

feel

the

vilbration of the handlebars. Similarly, many theme park attractions, particu-

larly those at Walt Disney World and Ilisneyland,

use

a high degree o f

tx-eadth in order to simulate a sense of presence. The addition of changes in

orientation, haptic sensations,

smells,

and tastes, in combination with audi-

tory and visual sensation, are particularly effective in this regard. For exam-

ple, the

Star Tours

and

Bogy

Wars

simulators combine

a

motion platform

with multichannel sound and film t o sirnulate space travel and a tour

through the human body, respectively. Other attractions use similar means

to enhance the sense

of

presence induced by scenes employing animated

three-dimensional figures: In

Pirates

ofthe

Caribbean,

the smell

of

gunpow-

der is used

to

enhance the illusion o f being in the midst of a battle; the lini-

verse

ofBnergy

in EPCOT Center employs heat lamps and humidifiers

t o

simulate the experience o f being among the dinosaurs; and

Spaceship Earth

utilizes chemical smoke to enhance the perceived realism

o f

sending smoke

signals with

a

simulated campfire.

breadth

of

mediated experience (see Hiocca, 1992). For instance, sound has

become increasingly important

in

computer-interface design, an d new tac-

Newer media technologies have made similar efforts

to

augment the

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technologically limited t o only 525 lines of resolution ( f o r the American

video stmdard) regardless

of

screen size, and can capture

a

much narrower

range of colors with each pixel. Television is therefore considerably lower

in depth than film. The desire to bring greater sensory depth

to

the TV

image is the motivating force behind the advanced television (A’l l i ) systems

currently under study . However, these advantages come at great cost in

terms

of

bandwidth requirements. various nonimmersive three-dirnen-

sional systems, including holograms, three-dimensional films, and even the

ViewMaster, attempt to accurately portray a sense

of

dep th across part o f

the visual field, while immersive visual displays such as stereoscopic head-

mounted displays create a sense of presence b y presenting a visual environ-

ment that moves with the viewer.

The relative contributions o f breadth and depth

to

vividness are not con-

stant. For example, a silent film has considerably greater image detail than

does a video presentation with sound; it is therefore greater in depth hut

lesser in txeadth . Similarly, a C I l recording of an opera has much wider fre-

quency bandwidth and greater dynamic range in the auditory domain than

does a standard videotape of the same performance, hut the videotape

includes image. The simultaneous engagement

o f

multiple perceptual sys-

tems is an extremely effective means

of

engendering a sense of presence,

even

if

some stimuli are quite low in depth (as is the case in the aforenien-

tioned llisney attractions). I t is likely that breadth and depth are multiplica-

tively related in generating

;I

sense

of

presence, with each dimension

sew-

ing

t o

enhance the other. The exact nature

of

this interaction clearly

warrants further study.

New technologies promise to expand both the sensory breadth and dep th

of mediated experience (see Hiocca, 1992, for a review). As media technolo-

gies become more and more vivid,

it

is possible that we will some day have

systems capable of passing

a

“perceptual Turing tes t.” The ramifications o f

media systems whose representations are perceptually indistinguishable

from their re;il-world counterparts are both exciting and terrifying-exciting

1,ecause o f the possibilities afforded by such systems to experience distant

and nonexistent worlds, and terrifying because

o f

the blurring of distinction

between representation an d reality.

Inkmct iuit-y

Communication medi:i can also be classified in terms of interactivity. Tnter-

actiuity is the

extent

to uhich users can participate in mod@ng the iwm

and content of w mediated environment in real time. Interactivity in this

sense

is

distinct from engugement or involvement as these terms are fre-

quently used by communication researchers (see Rafaeli, 1986, 1988).For

the purposes of this paper, interactivity, like vividness, is a stimulus-driven

Indeed,

tlic

development

of

;tlgorithms cap;tlde

o f

coinpressing the huge amount

o f

clat:i

required for

the

transmission

o f

high-resolution moving pictures into a

inanagcablc

bandwidth

has hecn thc primary obstacle in the development o f ATV systems.

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variable, and

is

determined hy the technological structure

o f

the tnedium.

‘Illis definition

o f

interactivity differs substantially from that

used

by most

comrnunication researchers. Consider Kafaeli’s definition:

Interaciiui[y is a

rlariahle

characteristic o cornmunilcation settiiigs. For-

mal@stated, intwacticity is

an

expression of the extcnt thwt

in

a g i z m

s e ~ e sf cowl

in

u 1 ication excha

n g c s ,

any h ird or hter) transm ssion ( o r

mcssagt. is related to the dogreti to which previous exchuriges

rc?fivredto

c w m earlier tmuzsmissions. (1988, p. 111

The difference between Iiafaeli’s definition and that given abovc is not

surprising, since his definition, l ike others in the communication literature

(see I>urlak,

1987;

Rafaeli,

19881,

is based on tlie traditional view

o f

medi-

ated communication discussed above. In contrast, the clefinition given here

is

based on

a

teleprcscnce view o f mediated communication, and thereby

focuses 0 1 1 properties o f the rnecliated environment and the relationship o f

individuals

to

that environment.

Interactivity

is a

variahle

o f

great concern

t o

researchers in humin-coiii-

puter interaction (see Heckel, 1791; Laurel,

1986,

1990,

190’1;

Nornman, 1986,

1988;

Stineiderman, 1772; ’I’urkle. 1984).As discussed above , both Sheridan

(

1992)

and

Zcltzer ( 1992) include variables that reserrible the definition of

interactivity given here as part

o f

their discussions

of

presence. Indeed , the

definition

o f

interactivity used here may

be

viewed as collapsing two

of

the

three dimensions in each

o f

their models-control

o f

sensors and ;.il>ility o

tnodify environment in Shericlan’s model; autonomy an d interaction in

Zeltzer’s model-into the single dirnension that includes all aspects o f the

perceiver’s control

o f

his relationship

to

the environment.

medium’s forin m c l content is that such a definition

does

not inclu.de coil-

t r o l over how the medium can be experienced. Thus, a b o o k . whi’cti cannot

be

changed easily in real time without cutting it apart. is not cunsidered

interactive, though one can certainly read a book interactively, jumping at

will from page to page and from chapter

t o

chapter. Conversely,

a

laser disc

system including programming that enables a user to control the o rder in

which its content is presented in real time is considered somcwhai; interac-

tive, because the medium itself can change, and ;I position-sensing, head-

mounted display controlling

a

virtual environment is thus considered

quite

interactive. M o s t traditional media systems are not particularly interactive in

this sense. Interaction with

;I

newspaper is possible only by writing letters

t o

the editor or

b y

writing stories for inclusion; call-in s h o w s and request

lines provide the only means of interaction with radio; :tnd most paintings

are not interactive at all.

Three factors that contribute t o interactivity will

be

examined here

(although many others are

also

important):

speed,

which refers

t o

tlie rxte

at

which input can

be

assimilated into the mediated environment;

range,

which refers t o the nciinber o f pssihilities for action at :my given time; and

A limitation o f defining interactivity in terms o f the malleability o f ;I

t i 5

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,Jmrnal

r~Communication,

utumn

1992

mapping, which refers to the ability of a system to map its controls

to

changes in the mediated environment in a natural and predictable manner.

Speed of interaction, o r response time, is one important characteristic of

an interactive media system (see Shneiderman, 1992). Real-time interaction

clearly represents the highest possible value for this variable: The actions o f

a user instantaneously alter the mediated environment. Many new media

attempt to reach this level

of

interactivity, enabling mediated experience

to

substitute for or amplify perception

of

the world in real time. This immedi-

acy of response is one o f the properties that makes even low-resolution

video games seem highly vivid. Computerized virtual-world systems using

goggles ‘n’gloves also seem highly interactive, attempting t o map user

actions to actions in the virtual environment in real time, though some delay

is still common. The telephone permits such real-time interaction among

two parties-three

o r

more in the case of a conference call. Other media

systems permit less immediate interaction: Films, like books, allow no inter-

action at all; an answering machine allows messages to be left and retrieved

at a later time, but offers no indication

of

how long the intervening interval

may be; and computer conferencing systems permit nearly instantaneous

interaction, requiring users only t o finish typing a message before sending it.

The range of interactivity is determined by the number

of

attributes o f the

mediated environment that can be manipulated, and the amount of variation

possible within each attribute. In other words, range refers to the amount o f

change that can be effected o n the mediated environment. ‘The specific

dimensions that can be modified depend on the characteristics of the partic-

ular medium, but include temporal ordering (discussed below), spatial orga-

nization (where objects appear), intensity (loudness of sounds, brightness of

images, intensity of smells), and frequency characteristics (timbre, color).

The greater the number of parameters that can be modified, the greater the

range of interactivity

of

a given medium.

Video-based systems provide a good example

o f

how temporal ordering,

a subdimension o f range, can

vary

They are listed here

by

increasing

range.” A

T V

broadcast permits a very small number of possible actions at a

given instant, since a particular program is either

on

or

off

(continuous

play). A program recorded on videotape can lie paused at any time

(start-stop) and portions may lie skipped or repeated at the whim of the

viewer (search). An interactive laser disc augments these capabilities by

allowing random-access jumps

to

any portion of the program in a matter of

seconds. A computer-based animation system actually can permit interaction

with objects in the mediated environment (rather than with the environment

as a whole) in real time.

Mapping refers to the way in which human actions are connected

to

actions within a mediated environment (see Norman, 1986,

1988).At

one

‘’

Of

course, each

o f

these media also has a range

of

interactivity across many other dimensions.

such

as image hrightness, contrast, color, hue , and

so

on . However, the technologies listed do

not dafJer in this regard.

86

7/26/2019 Steuer 1992


extreme, these mappings can lie completely arbitrary and unrelated to the

fiinction performed. For instance, wiggling one's

left

t'oe might increase the

loudness of sound from the T V speaker, or typing arbitrary commands into

a computer might shift the perspective of the image in a head-mounted dis-

play. At the other end of the spectrum, mapping may be completely natural:

Turning a steering wlieel on an arcade video game might make the virtual

car on the screen move accordingly, or mimicking the action

o f

throwing a

tiaseball while wearing a glove controller might initiate the throwing of a

virtual baseball. Mapping is thus a function of both thle types

o f

controllers

used

to

interact with a mediated environment, and the ways in which the

actions of these controllers are connected to actions within that environ-

ment.

In situations in which action in a mediated environment has a direct real-

world counterpart, such as the automobile and baseball examples discussed

above , the appropriate inapping strategy should match the natural action as

closely as possible. In other cases, appropriate use of metaphor can help

match controller and controlled. For example, the Apple Macintosh coin-

puter uses a desktop metaphor for organizing its file system

(see

Erickson,

1990); the jog-shuttle motion-control wheel found

on

many VCRs uses a

directional mctuphor for mapping hand controls to tape motion. Twisting

on e way moves forward, twisting the other moves backward; the amount of

twist determines the shuttle speed. In some cases, one must learn a c'oni-

pletely arbitrary system such as with the QWERTY layout

of

most typewriter

and computer keyboards, or the position of the digits on a te lephone key-

pad. However, even an arbitrary but standardized mapping system

is

hetter

than n o system at all, because such a system need be learned only once.

Since our perceptual systems are optimized for interactions with the real

world, mapping is generally increased by adapting controllers to the human

body. Many such controllers are now under development (see Hiocca,

1992). Speech-recognition systems and gloves epitomize such designs.

As

these and other technologies become more advanced, tlie mapping o f con-

troller actions

to

actions in mediated environments is likely to become

increasingly natural.

Vuriation

Across Iiadividuuls

If virtual reality is defined in ternis o f telepresence, then its locus is the per-

ceiver. Under this definition, virtual reality refers only to those perceptions

o f

telepresence induced by a communication medium. Therefore, virtual

reality can be distinguished from hoth purely psychic phenomena , such as

dreams or hallucinations (since these experiences require n o perceptual

input at all), and from the real reality as experienced via our unaided per-

ceptual hardware (since virtual realities, unlike real realities, can be experi-

enced only through a medium).

The number

of

actors present in a virtual world car1 also affect

tlie

per-

ception of telepresence. Since humans are

well

accustomed to interacting

with other humans in the real world, the apparent presence o f others in vir-

h7

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tila1 worlds should enhance the experience of telepresence. Although virtual

reality refers to individual experience, multiple individuals can experience

similar virtual realities by sharing the same virtual space, either electroni-

cally or through other technological means. This process occurs over a wide

range

of

technologies: in electronic txilletin-board systems by means

of

text;

in teleconferencing systems by means of video; and in inovie theaters b y

simultaneously bringing everyone in the theater into the same projected

world.

Both immediate situational Factors and ongoing personal concerns

(referred to as “background” by Winograd Flores, 1986) are important in

determining the extent

o f

telepresence. These Factors also interact with the

vividness and interactivity o f the medium itself: The relative importance

o f

each input modality varies from situation to situation. Consider the earlier

example involving standing on a street corner in the rain. Which sensory

input is most important in generating the iinpression o f being present on

the street corner? The answer depends on the particular individual. If ;I

friend is waving from across the street, then sight is most important; how-

ever, if he or she is yelling rather than waving, then hearing is most impor-

tant. An asthmatic might rely on smell to identify situations in which breath-

ing problems might arise, whereas touch

is

most important

to

the Wicked

Witch of the West, who must seek shelter or melt in the rain. Situational

characteristics are also important. A low-flying jet aircraft renders the audi-

tory channel useless for attracting attention, a city bus similarly blocks

vision, and an oxygen mask or raincoat could help the asthmatic or the

witch.

Laurel

(1986,

1990,

1991)

emphasizes the experiential nature of our inter-

action with media technologies, describing media use in terms

of

mimesis, I

form

of

artistic imitation typically applied in dramatic contexts.I3 She likens

the relationship between user and technology to action in a play, and

emphasizes the importance o f encouraging the user

of

a technology t o

develop a first-person, rather than third-person, relationship with his or her

mediated environment.

Engagement,

which Laurel

(1991)

describes as a pri-

marily emotional state with cognitive components, serves as a critical factor

in engendering

a

feeling

of

first-personness. Engagement is likened

t o

what

Samuel Taylor Coleridge called the “willing suspension

of

disbelief.”

Coleridge

believed that an-y idiot could see that a pla-yon stage was not

real

I @.

(Plato would have disagreed with him, as do those in uihom,f&ur

is induced

b y

any new representational medium, but that is another

sto

y Colcridge

noticed that, i n order

lo enjoy

a play, we must temporar-

ily suspend (or attenuate) our knowledge that it is ‘pretend.”We do this

“willing(y” n

order

to experience other emotional respon.5e.s as a

re.sztlt

cf

’’

hough Laurel explicitly discusses human-computer interface design, iiiost

o f

hcr points are

equally applicable

t o

other media

as

well. Indeed, what makes

her

writing fascinating is the

extent t o which her concepts ap p ly across media.

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‘I’liis willingness results from a complex combination of the inclividual desi re

t o let oneself g o, and

o f

less mindful processes entailing the characteristics

o f

the tnediurn itself (se e Reeves,

1991).

Dimensions and

Media

Ilighly vivid and interactive media systems are not yet widely availalde:

video games are the closest most peopl e have come

to

such systems.

Indeed , media systems that allow individuals to interact with each other in

natural ways within virtual environments are no t yet common, nor a re sys-

tems that can represent the seemingly infinite range o f sensory raw materi-

als present in the real world. However, systems that rate high on I-)oth

dimensions a r e quite common in science fiction: The holodeck o n Star

Ykek: The Next Generation provides real-time interactive mu1tisensl:x-y simu-

lations,

IS

does the nursery in I3racibury’s short story me

Veldt

(1951).

Cyhcr.space, an electronic realm conceived hy science fiction author William

Gibson

(1

9841,

provides

;I

somewhat different vision

o f

an interactive multi-

sensory environment. Cyberspace encompasses both real an d synthesized

realities as a unified matrix o f data, and is experienced

by

“jacking in” one’s

nervous system directly to the mediated world by means o f special hard-

ware. Thus, unlike traditional mediated experience, cylxrspace 1yp:isses

the sense organs completely, presenting its stimuli directly t o the perceptual

systems in the brain, presumahly maximizing Imth sensory txeadth and

depth . Gibson delineates the experience o f cyberspace from anc~)ther. onin-

teractive medium callecl simstinz, which

is

also experienced via direct neural

interface but permits only passive experience (much l i ke television).

See

Figure 3 f o r classifications o f

;I

wide range of media technologies. ”’

Since the dimensions discussed here de pend on a wide variety

(of

inde-

pendent varial)les,

the

exact relationship between these properties and the

experience of telepresence, a dependent variable, is

a

matter for empirical

study (though many hypotheses can

be

generated). I t seems that vividness

:ind interactivity are both positively related t o telepresence; that is, the more

vivid and the more interactive

a

particular environment , the greater tlw

sense

o f

presence evoked

h y

that environment. However, these predictions

may not be accurate; they may de pend on other mitigating factors. For

exaniple, a s McLuhan (

1964)

predicted, an extremely hot medium, one

designed

to

maximize vividness, may actually decrease a subject’s ability t o

I ‘ Since interactivity and

\ ,iviclness ;IW

s u c h

r i ch

concepts,

some o f Ihe pl:rcenients ;ire

soniewllat

.crl>itrary, s

they

resu l t

f r o m

d i f f e r e nc e s Ixtwccn

media

across m a n y d i f f e r e n t

dii-nensions.

Symposium

/ rK a n d

Telepresence

tizewzng the actzoi2

wen

to occur almost zdentzcally

TI

computer

games

where

U J ~

eelfiw and

utzth the

characters (includzng

our\elve\ as

character.$\) n t v r y similar

rcay~ h u r t . 1 ,

1991,

p 115)

7;hcpht.rzomenon

that

C'oleradge dacrzhed

caii

he

7/26/2019 Steuer 1992


ings

voice

0ail

active

low

interactivity

high

Figure 3. Various med ia t echno log ies classifiedby vividness and in teractivit y.

mindfully interact with

i t

in real time. This may be a result of limitations on

cognitive processing power available in the perceiver: Rapid-fire, higli-band-

width, inultisensory stimulation might engage such a great portion of the

brain's cognitive capacity that none is left for more mindful processes (see

I,ang, 1772).

CommunicationResearch

and

Virtual Reality

Communication researchers have studied media content and individual fac-

tors contributing

to

mediated perception; however, few have explicitly stud-

ied

interactivity

or

vividness. Quite a bit

of

research on interactivity has

heen done in the

field

of human-computer interaction, but as noted by

Kafaeli (1985, 1988), little interactivity research has been done in the corn-


1992

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rnunication field. Similarly, most of the research on vividness has Ileen tech-

nology oriented, in order

to

determine whether the cost o f implementing a

particular technological improvement is awranted

by

users’ increased “lik-

ing” (see McFarlane,

1991,

an d Neuman, Crigler, Schneider, O’Donnel,

Reynolds, 1987, fo r examples of such studies). Thus, the precise ramifica-

tions of these variables are largely unknown.

Progressively more advanced media technologies will enhance the sense

o f

telepresence in a wide variety

of

virtual realities. The goal of this paper

has been t o provide a set of dimensions to aid in measuring and predicting

cbxactly how this i n a y occur, and t o motivate further communication

research in this area. Communication researchers are uniquely suited t o VR

research; they can build upon the lessons learned f rom earlier studies

o f

media technologies in a human context, extending the work to include new

media as they develop. Rather than relying solely on engineering disciplines

to design and implement new media, communication researchers should

I

)ecome involved in the design and implenientation o f new media systems

I-lefore they are institutionalized.

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Symposium

/ rK a n d Telepresence

Steuer 1992

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