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JOU rnal
of’
Cbmmunication,
A
U t U
rnri 1992
VR,” depending on whether it includes a minimal corpus
of
particular
machines. Second, such a definition provides no clear conceptual unit
o f
analysis for virtual reality.
If
virtual reality consists
o f
a hardware system,
where do we look to identify a single virtual reality? Examining the techno-
logical apparatus alone
does
not seem adequate for this purpose. A third
and related problem
is
the lack of theoretical dimensions across which vir-
tual reality can vary. All systems meeting the basic hardware requirements
are VR, and all others are not-VR. However, once this initial classification
has tieen made, such a dichotomous definition offers n o suggestion of how
systems classified as not-VK may resemble those that are VR, nor how dif-
ferent VR systems can be compared
to
each other. In the absence of a clear
theoretical unit or any relevant dimensions for study,
it
is difficult
to
per-
form social science research that addresses the similarities and differences
among various VR systems, or that examines virtual reality in relation t o
other media.
Probably the most effective solution t o the problems with the current
usage of
virtual reality
would be to abandon i t entirely, in favor o f
a
more
theoretically grounded term. However, as the name
of
this symposium
demonstrates, the term has persisted in academic as well as popular usage.
It is therefore nece ry
t o
form a theoretically useful concept out of virtual
reality. This paper is an effort t o fill this need, addressing the aforemen-
tioned faults by defining virtual reality as a particular type of experience,
rather than as a collection
o f
hardware. Defining virtual reality in this way
will provide (a) a concrete unit of analysis for virtual reality, (b) a set
o f
dimensions over which virtual reality can vary, and , perhaps most impor-
tantly, (c>a means for examining virtual reality in relation to other types of
mediated experience.
Defining
Virtual
R e a l i t y
M o s t popular definitions o f virtual reality make reference to a particular
technological system. This system usually includes a computer capable of
real-time animation, controlled by a set of wired gloves and a position
tracker, and using a head-mounted stereoscopic display for visual output.3
The following are three examples
of
such definitions:
Virtual Reality is electronic simulations of eravironments experienced via
head-mounted eye
goggle.^
and wired clothing enahlirzg the end
user to
irzteruct in realistic three-dimensional situations.
(Coates, 1992)
(cont.) theoretical limitations
of
object-centered views
o f
technology, and o f the importmce of
variable-bnscd strategies in overcoming these limitations.
’ See Hiocca
(1992)
for a thorough description o f the h:rrdm~ire involved in
such
systems, and
for a brief review
of
the perceptual processes involved in the creation o f such hardware.
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Virtual Raid@ is
an
alternuto
uv)rld,filled with
computer-generated images
that respond
to
human movemcws.
These
simulated enoironments
are
usual&
visited ulith the aid
of an
c-ypensive data suit
ulhich
Jeature.s stercv
phonic videogoggles and fiber-optic data gloves. (Greenbaum, 1992, p. 581
-fie terms virtual worlds, virtual cockpits, and virtual workstations were
used to describe
spec<fic
rojects.
.
,
I n 1989,
Jaron Lanier, CEO qf
W L ,
coined
the
term
virtual reality to
bring all
of
the
virtual projects under a
single rubric. The term therefix? ypicully refen to three-dimensional reali-
ties implemented
with
stereo vieutng goggles and
reality glozxs. (Krueger,
1991, p . xiii)
Though these three definitions vary somewhat, all include the notions
o f
hoth electronically sirnulated environments an d “goggles ’n’gloves” systems
;IS the nieans t o access these environments. The appliication o f these ciefini-
tions (and any other definition that is similarly based on a particular harcl-
ware instantiation) is thereby limited
to
these technologies; their units
of
analysis and potential for variance are left unspecified. However, ic is possi-
Ide t o define virtual reality without reference to particular hardware .
Presence and Telcprcsen
ce
’I’he key t o defining virtual reality in terms o f human experience rather than
techno1ogic:il hardware
is
the concept
o f
presence.
Presence can be thought
o f as the experience
o f
one’s physical environment ;
it
refers not to one’s
surroundings as they exist in the physical world,
h i t
t o the perception o f
those surroundings ;IS mediatecl
b y
Iwth automatic arid controlled mental
processes (Gitxon, 1979): Presence is defined
as
the scwse of beiiig in
mi
cwuironment. Many perceptual factors help
to
genera te this s ense, includ-
ing input from so me o r all sensory channels, as
well a s
more mindful atten-
tional, perceptual, and other mental processes that assimilate incoming sen-
sory data with current concerns and past experiences (Gi lxon,
1966).
Presence is closely related
to
the phenomenon of distal attribution or exter-
nalzzation,
which refer t o the referencing of our perceptions t o an external
space 1)eyoncl the limits o f the sen wry organs themselves ([momis, 1992).
In unmediated perception, presence is taken for granted: What could on e
experience other than one’s
iininedirite
physical surroundings? However,
when perception is niecliated by 21 communication tec:hnology, o nc is forced
t o perceive
two
separate environments simultaneously: the physical environ-
ment in which on e is actually present an d the environnient presented via
the medium.’ The term
telepresciice
can
be
used
t o
describe the precedence
f‘rcserzcc
as ~ised
ere refers t o the experience o f
natural
surroundings; that is. sui-i-oundings
in which sensory input impinges directly upon the organs of sense. ‘I‘hc term is also some-
times used
t o
descritw the mcdiatc.d cxpcrience
of :I
physical environment; this is discussed
further
helow.
’
:or the purpcws of tliis papcr, ii iornmzinication trchnok)g~~an
t x
defined as :my nieans of
representing information across sp:ice
o r
:icross time. Mcdia/Cd commiinica tioii
/ C o n t i n i d /
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o f
the latter experience in favor o f the former; that is, telepresence is the
extent
t o
which one feels present in the mediated environment, rather than
in the immediate physical environment. Telepresence is de3nt.d as the expe-
rience qfpresence in an environment
b y
means
of
a communication
medium. In other words, presence refers to the natural perception of an
environment, and telepresence refers to the mediated perception of an envi-
ronment.
This
environment can be either ;i temporally or spatially distant
real environment (for instance, a d nt space viewed through a video cam-
era ), or an animated but nonexistent uirtztal uiorld synthesized h y a coni-
puter (for instance, the animated world created in a video game). Reeves
( 1991), in a discussion o f responses
to
television, describes this experience
as
a sense
of
“being there.” He claims that a combination o f automatic per-
ceptual processes, mindful direction
of
attention, and conscious processes
such
as
narratization all contribute t o our perceiving mediated experiences
;is real.‘’
presence is similar
to
some, but no t all, previous uses of the term. It was
coined h y Marvin Minsky (1980) in reference t o teleoperation systems for
remote manipulation o f physical objects. Sheridan and Furness (1992) have
continued this tradition by adopting the name Presence (rather than Tele
presence) for
;I
new journal dedicated to the study
o f
both teleoperator and
virtual environment systems. In the first issue
of
the journal, an ent ire sec-
tion is devoted
to
the concept
of
telepresence . Sheridan
(1992)
uses the
term prcwnce
to
refer t o the generic perception of being in an artificial or
remote environment , reserving telepresenceonly for cases involving teleop-
eration. However, in the same section of the journal, Held and Durlach
(1992) use telepresencc to refer to the experience common
t o
both teleoper-
ation and virtual environments. The broader term is used here in order
t o
highlight the similarities, rather than differences, between teleoperation and
virtual environments.
By eniploying the concept of telepresence, virtual reality can now be
defined without reference to a particular hardware system: A vil.ltualreality
is &fined
us
a real or simulated environment in which a perceiver expert-
The use o f the terni telepraence t o refer t o any medium-induced sense
o f
and mediatd
experience
are therefore considered t o be essentially equivalent. Again, this is ;I
very tiroad clefinition that differs from rnany typical views.
‘I
This is not
t o SAY
that people are “fooled” into lielieving that television o r other mccli;ited
experiences are real. However, two distinct research programs currently underway
:it
Stanford
have demonstrated that in ccrtain contexts, people respond
t o
mediated stimuli in ways simi-
1;ir to their rea-life counterparts. The r rrch on “being therc,” led by Byron Reevrs, includes
a study that suggests that images
o f
faces presented on
a
television screen evoke siniil;ir
rules
of intcrpersond space as clo actual faces (Reeves, Lombard, Melwani, 19921, as \veil
as a
study to determine the effects
o f
representing auditory and visual fidelity and spatial charac-
teristics in engendering real-world-like responses from televised m
for a description) The “Computer :IS Social Actor” project, led h y
that computers can evoke social responses similar
t o
those evoked
situations
where
there IS no logical explanation for such behavior s
sen,
1992).
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Traditional View
Telepresence View
virtual
reality
Figure 1
Two
models of mediated communication. After Krueger, 1991, p. 37.
L J I Z C C Se1cqbrescnce.-
Admittedly, this definition
does
not
mesh precisely
with
typical
uses o f
the term. Indeed, given the broad definitions
o f
the concepts
involved, this definition
o f
virtu:tl reality includes practically
all
rnetliated
experience.
I n
so
doing,
it
suggests a n alternative
view
o f
mediated commii-
nication in general. Tr:dition:illy, the process o f conmimication is descrilxcl
in terms
o f
the transmission
o f
information,
as a proccss
linking sender and
receiver.x Media are therefore important only
as a
conduit, :IS
:
means
o f
connecting sende r
m c l
receiver, an d :ire only interesting to the extent that
they contribute
t o o r
otherwise interfere with the transmission o f
rile
I first encoiintereci
;I
5imil;ir clef in i t ion
o f
vivtiial reality
in
;I
posting t o t hc \Y ELL
c o n i p u t e r
Ien1 h)-
Howard lllieingoltl, tlatecl M a y 23, 19913. R h e i n g o l c l s
I ook
LTr-lzral
i n
e xc e l l e n t s u m q o f t h e history of
virtu:ll
reality.
xamples
o f niodels nieeting
th is
genei-al
dcxcription
can
be
l'ound
in
IkFlci.ir
:incI
I3:tll-
Rokeach,
1989;
5clir:iniiii.
1974;
S1i:innon
and Weaver , 1962; o r in :rny introductory
coinmuni-
cation
tex t .
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from sender
to
receiver. In contrast, the telepresence view focuses attention
on the relationship between an individual who is both a sender and
a
receiver. and on the mediated environment with which he
or
she interacts.
Information is not transmitted from sender to receiver; rather, mediated
environments are created and then experienced (see Sheridan,
1992). See
Figure
1
for a graphical presentation of the contrast between these two
views of mediated communication.
Virtual Realities and Media
The machines mentioned in previous definitions of virtual reality (comput-
ers, position sensors, hex-m oun te d displays, etc.) are all relatively recent
developments. However, the definition o f virtual reality as telepresence can
be applied
to
past, present, and future media technologies. Consider, for
example, the telephone. Most users take for granted the possibility
o f
talk-
ing to people who are not physically present as if they were in the same
room.‘ But imagine this scene (adapted from the film Being 7bere [Ashby
Kozinski, 19791):
You
receive yourfirst-ever telephone call.
You
are handed the telephone
and
la ?
it toyour ear.
You
hear nothing, and exclaim, “Noone is there.”
A
.friend standing nearby takes the rceive?; speaks into it, and hands it back
to you.
“Oh
yes, hek there,”.your riend replies. You look atyour.fritmd
quizzically, then point
to
the telephorie,point to
.your
immediate sur-
roundings, and inquire, “Where s he? There or here?”
HOWcan one explain the seemingly bizarre ability to speak t o someone
who is not present by means
of
talking into a piece of plastic? Of course, as
mentioned above, this process can be conceived in terms of senders,
receivers, and messages. However, such an explanation fails to account for
the odd experience o f speaking
to
someone who is not actually there.
Where does such a conversation take place? The most plausible conceptual
model is that
both
parties, by means
of
the telephone, are electronically pre-
sent in t h e same virtual reality created by the telephone system. A few addi-
tional examples illustrate this difference with respect
t o
a number o f differ-
ent media:
Keading a letter from a distant friend or colleague can evoke a sense
o f
presence in the environment in which the letter was written, or can
make
the distant party seem locally present. This feeling can occur even
when one is unfamiliar with the remote physical surroundings.
When people telephone an airline using a toll-free number
to
make
reservations
for
a flight, they often ask the operator where he
o r
she
‘’ olni ou sl y, telephone-mediated communication is
not
exactly the same as face-to-fricc coni-
miinication:
only
auditory cues are provided
over
the telephone,
and
even these are very
h i
itccl
in terms
of
dynamic range and frequency spectrum. However, there is still i ense in
which the experiences are quite similar.
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“really is.”They d o this tx cau se they are uncomfortable interacting in
a
virtual reality that provides n o other contextual clues, and they there-
fore wish to create a background into which
to
place the operator’s
character.
LJsers
of
multiple electronic \>ulletin-board systems report that each sys-
tem provides a distinct sense of place.
Listening t o live recordings of music (recordings rnade during a perfor-
mance) gives the listener
a
sense
o f
presence in the room
(e.g.,
concert
hall) in which the recording was made. However, recordings made in
a
studio can also evoke such feelings, even though there was no single
performance at which a listener could have been present.
means
of a
remotely mounted movable camera, and handle radioactive
chemicals by ineans of remotely controlled mechanical hands.
Video game players describe the experience of moving an animated car
on the screen as driving.
Each
o f
these situations evokes, in
some
sense, a feeling of telepresence.
Nuclear power plant operators ohserve the inside o f the reactor b y
A similar sense can be experienced via virtually any technology used in
mediated communication. Newspapers, letters, and rriagazines place the
reader in
a
space in which the writer is telling
a
story; television places the
\tiewer in a virtual space in which lmth viewer an d om-screen objects are
present; and video games create virtual spaces in which the game--player s
an actor.
Th~ is ,he definition of virtual reality in terms of telepresence provides a
conceptual framework in which such newly deve loped tecl inologies can be
c2xainined in relation t o other media technologies. FLI thermore, defining vir-
tual reality in terms o f telep resence alleviates the th ree difficulties enumer-
ated above. First, virtual reality refers
to
an experience, rather than a
machine. The definition thereby shifts the locus
of
virtual reality from a par-
ticular hardware package to the perceptions of an individual. Second, this
clefinition specifies the unit o f analysis of virtual reality-the individuLi1-
since it consists o f an individual experience of presence. Thus, dependent
tneaswes of virtual reality must all he measures o f individual experience,
providing an obvious means o f applying knowledge about perceptu:il
processes and individual di fferences in determining the nature o f virtual
reality. Finally, since this definition
is
not technology based, it permits varia-
tion ;tcross technologies along a number
o f
dimensions. The remainder of
this paper is tledicated
t o
explicating virtual reality in relation t o such
dimensions,
Variables Predicting Virtual Reality
First-person experiences in the real world represent
a
standard
to
which all
mediated experiences are comparcd, either mindfully or otherwise: Pace-to-
f ’xe nteraction with other humans is used as a model for a11 interactive
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communication (Durlak, 1987).The human perceptual system has been
tuned through the process
of
evolution for the perception
o f
real-world
environments. The experience o f virtual reality can be enhanced
b y
appeal-
ing
to
these same perceptual mechanisms (see Reeves, 1991
.
However,
since
it
is defined in terms
o f
an individual experience o f a particular kind,
it
is difficult to arrive at operational measures
of
telepresence
(see
Held
Ilurlach, 1992). Since telepresence is nece rily experienced by means
of
a
medium of some kind, properties of the medium will also affect the percep-
tion
of
virtual reality. Factors influencing whether a particular mediated situ-
ation will induce
a
sense
of
telepresence include the following: the coml+
nation
of
sensory stimuli employed in the environment, the ways in which
participants are able to interact with the environment, and the characteristics
of
the individual experiencing the environment, Thus, telepresence is
a
function o f both technology an d perceiver.
Sheridan (1992) identifies five variables that help induce a sense
o f
tele-
presence. Three
o f
them are technological: the extent of sensory informa-
tion, control
of
sensors relative
t o
environment, and the ability to modify
the physical environment
(see
Biocca,
1992,
Figure
3,
for a graphical clepic-
tion). The other tw o are task- or context-based: task difficulty, and degree
o f
automation. Zeltzer
(1992)
provides
a
similar niatrix
of
variables that
describe t he capabilities o f graphic simulation systems, which he terms
autonomy (h uman control), interaction (real-time control), and presence
(bandwidth
of
sensation).
Two major d imensions across which communication technologies vary
are discussed here a s determinants of telepresence. The first,
vividness,
refers to the ability
of a
technology t o produce
a
sensorially rich mediated
environment.
''
The second, inteructiuity, refers to the degree t o which users
of
a medium can influence the form or content
o f
the mediated environ-
ment. Media artist Michael Nainiark (1990) refers t o these same properties
as
realness
and
inteructiuity.
Others, including Brenda Laurel (1991) and
Howard Kheingold
(19911,
make similar distinctions. See Figure 2 for graph-
ical depictions of these two dimensions, and for mn ie of the variables that
contrilxite t o each.
When considering these dimensions, on e should remember that virtual
reality resides in an individual's consciousness; therefore, the relative contri-
bution o f each of these dimensions
to
creating a sense of environmental
presence will vary across individuals. Similarly, differences in the content
o f
the tnediated environment-that is, in the kinds o f entities represented and
in the interactions among them-will also affect the perception o f presence.
However, the variables vividness an d interactivity refer only
to
the represen-
tational powers
o f
the technology,rather than to the individual; that is, they
I
K o t e
that this clefinition does
no/
n u k e r e fe re n ce t o rese inbl ing o1)jects i n t h e r ea l w o r l d , a n d
the i-eb y :ivoicls
prohlems
in desc r ib ing
the
e x p e r i e n c e
o f
ar tif ic ia l si1u:i tions. F or inst anc e, h o w
docs
o n e t l e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r :I unicorn in
vir t i~ t l
eality
looks like
a rea l -wor ld unicorn? 13y
r e f er r ing on ly to sensory r ichness , this def in i t ion avoids such c o n c e r n s .
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telepresence
vividness interactivity
Figure
2
Technological variables influencing telepresence.
determine properties
o f
the stiniiilus that will have similar but not identical
ramifications ;icross
a
range of perceivers. The remainder o f this section
considers these two dimensions in
some
detail.
I/iuidnes.s
One variable property
o f
media technologies that influences their ability t o
induce 3 sense o f presence
is
vividne
Vivid?iless
means the
rejwwvitu-
tiovial m‘chrxssqf u
mediated erwiron
nt as defined b y it.sJ?fi,rmaleutim>.s;
that
is the u1ap in ulhich an enr,ironmmlpre.sents
in@*mation o
the .scn.st~.s.
Vividness is stimulus driven, depending entirely upoin technicA characteris-
tics o f a niedium. Rafaeli
(1985) refers
to this property ;IS“transparency” (p .
9 . highly vivid rnediuni can he consiclered “hot” n the McLuhanesque
sense, as it “extends one [or many] senselsl in ‘high definition”’ (klcl,ulian,
1964]
p.
36).
Many factors contribute to vividne
important variables are discussed here: sensory breadth, which refers to the
number o f stmsory dimensions simultaneously presented, :ind sensory
depth, which refers to the resolution within each of these perceptual chan-
nels. Breadth is a function
o f
the ability o f
21
communication
m e d i u m
t o pre-
sent infornyation across the senses. J . J . Gibson (1966) defines five distinct
perceptual systems: the basic orienting system, whiclh is responsilde f o r
maintaining
I x d y
equililxium; the auditory system; the haptic, o r touch, hys
tein; the taste-smell system; and the visual system. Inputs
to
several o f these
systems from 21 single source can l x considered information:illy eqiiivalent
(Gibson, 1966). However, the redundancy resulting from simultaneous acti-
vation of
a
n u t n k r o f perceptual systems reduces the nuniber o f alternative
situations that could induce such
a
combination o f perceptions, and there-
fore strengthens the perception
o f
a
particular environment.
This concept is best illustrated b y an example.
Imagine
standing on
:I
street corner in a rainstorm. Which sense is responsible for generating
21
Two generalized but
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lournu1o/
Cornmumcatton. Autumn
1992
sense of presence in that environment? The haptic system is activated by
raindrops hitting the body, but
a
similar sensation could result from being
sprayed by a nearby sprinkler. Similarly, the smell o f a soggy dog standing
nearby could result from other situations. But when these perceptions occur
simultaneously with the image o f raindrops falling on the streets and the
buildings, the sound
of
raindrops hitting the ground and cars driving across
wet pavement, and the taste
o f
wet diesel exhaust from passing buses, one
clearly has a sense
of
being on a street corner in the rain. The vividness of
the street corner scene is not generated by any single sensory input alone,
but by the simultaneous juxtaposition of all sensory input. Often, redundant
information is presented siinultmeously: One hears an explosion, sees the
flash, and smells the smoke simultaneously. This redundancy serves
t o
fur-
ther enhance vividne
Traditional media such as print, telephone, television, and film are rela-
tively
low
in breadth, relying primarily on the visual and auditory channels.
However, some artists have attempted to expand these boundaries. Films
such as Earthquake (Robson, 1974) and The Tingler (Castle, 1959) included
vibrating devices attached to theater seats in order t o add haptic sensation.
The film Polyester (Waters, 1981)
was
originally presented in “odoramd”-on
entering the theater, theatergoers were presented with a scratch-and-sniff
card and were instructed t o smell certain scents at appropriate points during
the film. One notable example
of
an attempt to provide great sensory
breadth in
a
mediated presentation
is
the Sensorama device developed by
Mort Heilig
(see
Krueger, 1991, and Rheingold, 1991, for more detailed
descriptions). This arcade-game-style simulator utilizes four of the five
senses t o simulate a motorcycle ride: LJsers see the Manhattan streets go by,
hear the roar
of
the motorcycle and the sounds of the street, smell the
exhaust
of
other cars and pizza cooking in roadside restaurants, and
feel
the
vilbration of the handlebars. Similarly, many theme park attractions, particu-
larly those at Walt Disney World and Ilisneyland,
use
a high degree o f
tx-eadth in order to simulate a sense of presence. The addition of changes in
orientation, haptic sensations,
smells,
and tastes, in combination with audi-
tory and visual sensation, are particularly effective in this regard. For exam-
ple, the
Star Tours
and
Bogy
Wars
simulators combine
a
motion platform
with multichannel sound and film t o sirnulate space travel and a tour
through the human body, respectively. Other attractions use similar means
to enhance the sense
of
presence induced by scenes employing animated
three-dimensional figures: In
Pirates
ofthe
Caribbean,
the smell
of
gunpow-
der is used
to
enhance the illusion o f being in the midst of a battle; the lini-
verse
ofBnergy
in EPCOT Center employs heat lamps and humidifiers
t o
simulate the experience o f being among the dinosaurs; and
Spaceship Earth
utilizes chemical smoke to enhance the perceived realism
o f
sending smoke
signals with
a
simulated campfire.
breadth
of
mediated experience (see Hiocca, 1992). For instance, sound has
become increasingly important
in
computer-interface design, an d new tac-
Newer media technologies have made similar efforts
to
augment the
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technologically limited t o only 525 lines of resolution ( f o r the American
video stmdard) regardless
of
screen size, and can capture
a
much narrower
range of colors with each pixel. Television is therefore considerably lower
in depth than film. The desire to bring greater sensory depth
to
the TV
image is the motivating force behind the advanced television (A’l l i ) systems
currently under study . However, these advantages come at great cost in
terms
of
bandwidth requirements. various nonimmersive three-dirnen-
sional systems, including holograms, three-dimensional films, and even the
ViewMaster, attempt to accurately portray a sense
of
dep th across part o f
the visual field, while immersive visual displays such as stereoscopic head-
mounted displays create a sense of presence b y presenting a visual environ-
ment that moves with the viewer.
The relative contributions o f breadth and depth
to
vividness are not con-
stant. For example, a silent film has considerably greater image detail than
does a video presentation with sound; it is therefore greater in depth hut
lesser in txeadth . Similarly, a C I l recording of an opera has much wider fre-
quency bandwidth and greater dynamic range in the auditory domain than
does a standard videotape of the same performance, hut the videotape
includes image. The simultaneous engagement
o f
multiple perceptual sys-
tems is an extremely effective means
of
engendering a sense of presence,
even
if
some stimuli are quite low in depth (as is the case in the aforenien-
tioned llisney attractions). I t is likely that breadth and depth are multiplica-
tively related in generating
;I
sense
of
presence, with each dimension
sew-
ing
t o
enhance the other. The exact nature
of
this interaction clearly
warrants further study.
New technologies promise to expand both the sensory breadth and dep th
of mediated experience (see Hiocca, 1992, for a review). As media technolo-
gies become more and more vivid,
it
is possible that we will some day have
systems capable of passing
a
“perceptual Turing tes t.” The ramifications o f
media systems whose representations are perceptually indistinguishable
from their re;il-world counterparts are both exciting and terrifying-exciting
1,ecause o f the possibilities afforded by such systems to experience distant
and nonexistent worlds, and terrifying because
o f
the blurring of distinction
between representation an d reality.
Inkmct iuit-y
Communication medi:i can also be classified in terms of interactivity. Tnter-
actiuity is the
extent
to uhich users can participate in mod@ng the iwm
and content of w mediated environment in real time. Interactivity in this
sense
is
distinct from engugement or involvement as these terms are fre-
quently used by communication researchers (see Rafaeli, 1986, 1988).For
the purposes of this paper, interactivity, like vividness, is a stimulus-driven
Indeed,
tlic
development
of
;tlgorithms cap;tlde
o f
coinpressing the huge amount
o f
clat:i
required for
the
transmission
o f
high-resolution moving pictures into a
inanagcablc
bandwidth
has hecn thc primary obstacle in the development o f ATV systems.
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variable, and
is
determined hy the technological structure
o f
the tnedium.
‘Illis definition
o f
interactivity differs substantially from that
used
by most
comrnunication researchers. Consider Kafaeli’s definition:
Interaciiui[y is a
rlariahle
characteristic o cornmunilcation settiiigs. For-
mal@stated, intwacticity is
an
expression of the extcnt thwt
in
a g i z m
s e ~ e sf cowl
in
u 1 ication excha
n g c s ,
any h ird or hter) transm ssion ( o r
mcssagt. is related to the dogreti to which previous exchuriges
rc?fivredto
c w m earlier tmuzsmissions. (1988, p. 111
The difference between Iiafaeli’s definition and that given abovc is not
surprising, since his definition, l ike others in the communication literature
(see I>urlak,
1987;
Rafaeli,
19881,
is based on tlie traditional view
o f
medi-
ated communication discussed above. In contrast, the clefinition given here
is
based on
a
teleprcscnce view o f mediated communication, and thereby
focuses 0 1 1 properties o f the rnecliated environment and the relationship o f
individuals
to
that environment.
Interactivity
is a
variahle
o f
great concern
t o
researchers in humin-coiii-
puter interaction (see Heckel, 1791; Laurel,
1986,
1990,
190’1;
Nornman, 1986,
1988;
Stineiderman, 1772; ’I’urkle. 1984).As discussed above , both Sheridan
(
1992)
and
Zcltzer ( 1992) include variables that reserrible the definition of
interactivity given here as part
o f
their discussions
of
presence. Indeed , the
definition
o f
interactivity used here may
be
viewed as collapsing two
of
the
three dimensions in each
o f
their models-control
o f
sensors and ;.il>ility o
tnodify environment in Shericlan’s model; autonomy an d interaction in
Zeltzer’s model-into the single dirnension that includes all aspects o f the
perceiver’s control
o f
his relationship
to
the environment.
medium’s forin m c l content is that such a definition
does
not inclu.de coil-
t r o l over how the medium can be experienced. Thus, a b o o k . whi’cti cannot
be
changed easily in real time without cutting it apart. is not cunsidered
interactive, though one can certainly read a book interactively, jumping at
will from page to page and from chapter
t o
chapter. Conversely,
a
laser disc
system including programming that enables a user to control the o rder in
which its content is presented in real time is considered somcwhai; interac-
tive, because the medium itself can change, and ;I position-sensing, head-
mounted display controlling
a
virtual environment is thus considered
quite
interactive. M o s t traditional media systems are not particularly interactive in
this sense. Interaction with
;I
newspaper is possible only by writing letters
t o
the editor or
b y
writing stories for inclusion; call-in s h o w s and request
lines provide the only means of interaction with radio; :tnd most paintings
are not interactive at all.
Three factors that contribute t o interactivity will
be
examined here
(although many others are
also
important):
speed,
which refers
t o
tlie rxte
at
which input can
be
assimilated into the mediated environment;
range,
which refers t o the nciinber o f pssihilities for action at :my given time; and
A limitation o f defining interactivity in terms o f the malleability o f ;I
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,Jmrnal
r~Communication,
utumn
1992
mapping, which refers to the ability of a system to map its controls
to
changes in the mediated environment in a natural and predictable manner.
Speed of interaction, o r response time, is one important characteristic of
an interactive media system (see Shneiderman, 1992). Real-time interaction
clearly represents the highest possible value for this variable: The actions o f
a user instantaneously alter the mediated environment. Many new media
attempt to reach this level
of
interactivity, enabling mediated experience
to
substitute for or amplify perception
of
the world in real time. This immedi-
acy of response is one o f the properties that makes even low-resolution
video games seem highly vivid. Computerized virtual-world systems using
goggles ‘n’gloves also seem highly interactive, attempting t o map user
actions to actions in the virtual environment in real time, though some delay
is still common. The telephone permits such real-time interaction among
two parties-three
o r
more in the case of a conference call. Other media
systems permit less immediate interaction: Films, like books, allow no inter-
action at all; an answering machine allows messages to be left and retrieved
at a later time, but offers no indication
of
how long the intervening interval
may be; and computer conferencing systems permit nearly instantaneous
interaction, requiring users only t o finish typing a message before sending it.
The range of interactivity is determined by the number
of
attributes o f the
mediated environment that can be manipulated, and the amount of variation
possible within each attribute. In other words, range refers to the amount o f
change that can be effected o n the mediated environment. ‘The specific
dimensions that can be modified depend on the characteristics of the partic-
ular medium, but include temporal ordering (discussed below), spatial orga-
nization (where objects appear), intensity (loudness of sounds, brightness of
images, intensity of smells), and frequency characteristics (timbre, color).
The greater the number of parameters that can be modified, the greater the
range of interactivity
of
a given medium.
Video-based systems provide a good example
o f
how temporal ordering,
a subdimension o f range, can
vary
They are listed here
by
increasing
range.” A
T V
broadcast permits a very small number of possible actions at a
given instant, since a particular program is either
on
or
off
(continuous
play). A program recorded on videotape can lie paused at any time
(start-stop) and portions may lie skipped or repeated at the whim of the
viewer (search). An interactive laser disc augments these capabilities by
allowing random-access jumps
to
any portion of the program in a matter of
seconds. A computer-based animation system actually can permit interaction
with objects in the mediated environment (rather than with the environment
as a whole) in real time.
Mapping refers to the way in which human actions are connected
to
actions within a mediated environment (see Norman, 1986,
1988).At
one
‘’
Of
course, each
o f
these media also has a range
of
interactivity across many other dimensions.
such
as image hrightness, contrast, color, hue , and
so
on . However, the technologies listed do
not dafJer in this regard.
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extreme, these mappings can lie completely arbitrary and unrelated to the
fiinction performed. For instance, wiggling one's
left
t'oe might increase the
loudness of sound from the T V speaker, or typing arbitrary commands into
a computer might shift the perspective of the image in a head-mounted dis-
play. At the other end of the spectrum, mapping may be completely natural:
Turning a steering wlieel on an arcade video game might make the virtual
car on the screen move accordingly, or mimicking the action
o f
throwing a
tiaseball while wearing a glove controller might initiate the throwing of a
virtual baseball. Mapping is thus a function of both thle types
o f
controllers
used
to
interact with a mediated environment, and the ways in which the
actions of these controllers are connected to actions within that environ-
ment.
In situations in which action in a mediated environment has a direct real-
world counterpart, such as the automobile and baseball examples discussed
above , the appropriate inapping strategy should match the natural action as
closely as possible. In other cases, appropriate use of metaphor can help
match controller and controlled. For example, the Apple Macintosh coin-
puter uses a desktop metaphor for organizing its file system
(see
Erickson,
1990); the jog-shuttle motion-control wheel found
on
many VCRs uses a
directional mctuphor for mapping hand controls to tape motion. Twisting
on e way moves forward, twisting the other moves backward; the amount of
twist determines the shuttle speed. In some cases, one must learn a c'oni-
pletely arbitrary system such as with the QWERTY layout
of
most typewriter
and computer keyboards, or the position of the digits on a te lephone key-
pad. However, even an arbitrary but standardized mapping system
is
hetter
than n o system at all, because such a system need be learned only once.
Since our perceptual systems are optimized for interactions with the real
world, mapping is generally increased by adapting controllers to the human
body. Many such controllers are now under development (see Hiocca,
1992). Speech-recognition systems and gloves epitomize such designs.
As
these and other technologies become more advanced, tlie mapping o f con-
troller actions
to
actions in mediated environments is likely to become
increasingly natural.
Vuriation
Across Iiadividuuls
If virtual reality is defined in ternis o f telepresence, then its locus is the per-
ceiver. Under this definition, virtual reality refers only to those perceptions
o f
telepresence induced by a communication medium. Therefore, virtual
reality can be distinguished from hoth purely psychic phenomena , such as
dreams or hallucinations (since these experiences require n o perceptual
input at all), and from the real reality as experienced via our unaided per-
ceptual hardware (since virtual realities, unlike real realities, can be experi-
enced only through a medium).
The number
of
actors present in a virtual world car1 also affect
tlie
per-
ception of telepresence. Since humans are
well
accustomed to interacting
with other humans in the real world, the apparent presence o f others in vir-
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tila1 worlds should enhance the experience of telepresence. Although virtual
reality refers to individual experience, multiple individuals can experience
similar virtual realities by sharing the same virtual space, either electroni-
cally or through other technological means. This process occurs over a wide
range
of
technologies: in electronic txilletin-board systems by means
of
text;
in teleconferencing systems by means of video; and in inovie theaters b y
simultaneously bringing everyone in the theater into the same projected
world.
Both immediate situational Factors and ongoing personal concerns
(referred to as “background” by Winograd Flores, 1986) are important in
determining the extent
o f
telepresence. These Factors also interact with the
vividness and interactivity o f the medium itself: The relative importance
o f
each input modality varies from situation to situation. Consider the earlier
example involving standing on a street corner in the rain. Which sensory
input is most important in generating the iinpression o f being present on
the street corner? The answer depends on the particular individual. If ;I
friend is waving from across the street, then sight is most important; how-
ever, if he or she is yelling rather than waving, then hearing is most impor-
tant. An asthmatic might rely on smell to identify situations in which breath-
ing problems might arise, whereas touch
is
most important
to
the Wicked
Witch of the West, who must seek shelter or melt in the rain. Situational
characteristics are also important. A low-flying jet aircraft renders the audi-
tory channel useless for attracting attention, a city bus similarly blocks
vision, and an oxygen mask or raincoat could help the asthmatic or the
witch.
Laurel
(1986,
1990,
1991)
emphasizes the experiential nature of our inter-
action with media technologies, describing media use in terms
of
mimesis, I
form
of
artistic imitation typically applied in dramatic contexts.I3 She likens
the relationship between user and technology to action in a play, and
emphasizes the importance o f encouraging the user
of
a technology t o
develop a first-person, rather than third-person, relationship with his or her
mediated environment.
Engagement,
which Laurel
(1991)
describes as a pri-
marily emotional state with cognitive components, serves as a critical factor
in engendering
a
feeling
of
first-personness. Engagement is likened
t o
what
Samuel Taylor Coleridge called the “willing suspension
of
disbelief.”
Coleridge
believed that an-y idiot could see that a pla-yon stage was not
real
I @.
(Plato would have disagreed with him, as do those in uihom,f&ur
is induced
b y
any new representational medium, but that is another
sto
y Colcridge
noticed that, i n order
lo enjoy
a play, we must temporar-
ily suspend (or attenuate) our knowledge that it is ‘pretend.”We do this
“willing(y” n
order
to experience other emotional respon.5e.s as a
re.sztlt
cf
’’
hough Laurel explicitly discusses human-computer interface design, iiiost
o f
hcr points are
equally applicable
t o
other media
as
well. Indeed, what makes
her
writing fascinating is the
extent t o which her concepts ap p ly across media.
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‘I’liis willingness results from a complex combination of the inclividual desi re
t o let oneself g o, and
o f
less mindful processes entailing the characteristics
o f
the tnediurn itself (se e Reeves,
1991).
Dimensions and
Media
Ilighly vivid and interactive media systems are not yet widely availalde:
video games are the closest most peopl e have come
to
such systems.
Indeed , media systems that allow individuals to interact with each other in
natural ways within virtual environments are no t yet common, nor a re sys-
tems that can represent the seemingly infinite range o f sensory raw materi-
als present in the real world. However, systems that rate high on I-)oth
dimensions a r e quite common in science fiction: The holodeck o n Star
Ykek: The Next Generation provides real-time interactive mu1tisensl:x-y simu-
lations,
IS
does the nursery in I3racibury’s short story me
Veldt
(1951).
Cyhcr.space, an electronic realm conceived hy science fiction author William
Gibson
(1
9841,
provides
;I
somewhat different vision
o f
an interactive multi-
sensory environment. Cyberspace encompasses both real an d synthesized
realities as a unified matrix o f data, and is experienced
by
“jacking in” one’s
nervous system directly to the mediated world by means o f special hard-
ware. Thus, unlike traditional mediated experience, cylxrspace 1yp:isses
the sense organs completely, presenting its stimuli directly t o the perceptual
systems in the brain, presumahly maximizing Imth sensory txeadth and
depth . Gibson delineates the experience o f cyberspace from anc~)ther. onin-
teractive medium callecl simstinz, which
is
also experienced via direct neural
interface but permits only passive experience (much l i ke television).
See
Figure 3 f o r classifications o f
;I
wide range of media technologies. ”’
Since the dimensions discussed here de pend on a wide variety
(of
inde-
pendent varial)les,
the
exact relationship between these properties and the
experience of telepresence, a dependent variable, is
a
matter for empirical
study (though many hypotheses can
be
generated). I t seems that vividness
:ind interactivity are both positively related t o telepresence; that is, the more
vivid and the more interactive
a
particular environment , the greater tlw
sense
o f
presence evoked
h y
that environment. However, these predictions
may not be accurate; they may de pend on other mitigating factors. For
exaniple, a s McLuhan (
1964)
predicted, an extremely hot medium, one
designed
to
maximize vividness, may actually decrease a subject’s ability t o
I ‘ Since interactivity and
\ ,iviclness ;IW
s u c h
r i ch
concepts,
some o f Ihe pl:rcenients ;ire
soniewllat
.crl>itrary, s
they
resu l t
f r o m
d i f f e r e nc e s Ixtwccn
media
across m a n y d i f f e r e n t
dii-nensions.
Symposium
/ rK a n d
Telepresence
tizewzng the actzoi2
wen
to occur almost zdentzcally
TI
computer
games
where
U J ~
eelfiw and
utzth the
characters (includzng
our\elve\ as
character.$\) n t v r y similar
rcay~ h u r t . 1 ,
1991,
p 115)
7;hcpht.rzomenon
that
C'oleradge dacrzhed
caii
he
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ings
voice
0ail
active
low
interactivity
high
Figure 3. Various med ia t echno log ies classifiedby vividness and in teractivit y.
mindfully interact with
i t
in real time. This may be a result of limitations on
cognitive processing power available in the perceiver: Rapid-fire, higli-band-
width, inultisensory stimulation might engage such a great portion of the
brain's cognitive capacity that none is left for more mindful processes (see
I,ang, 1772).
CommunicationResearch
and
Virtual Reality
Communication researchers have studied media content and individual fac-
tors contributing
to
mediated perception; however, few have explicitly stud-
ied
interactivity
or
vividness. Quite a bit
of
research on interactivity has
heen done in the
field
of human-computer interaction, but as noted by
Kafaeli (1985, 1988), little interactivity research has been done in the corn-
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rnunication field. Similarly, most of the research on vividness has Ileen tech-
nology oriented, in order
to
determine whether the cost o f implementing a
particular technological improvement is awranted
by
users’ increased “lik-
ing” (see McFarlane,
1991,
an d Neuman, Crigler, Schneider, O’Donnel,
Reynolds, 1987, fo r examples of such studies). Thus, the precise ramifica-
tions of these variables are largely unknown.
Progressively more advanced media technologies will enhance the sense
o f
telepresence in a wide variety
of
virtual realities. The goal of this paper
has been t o provide a set of dimensions to aid in measuring and predicting
cbxactly how this i n a y occur, and t o motivate further communication
research in this area. Communication researchers are uniquely suited t o VR
research; they can build upon the lessons learned f rom earlier studies
o f
media technologies in a human context, extending the work to include new
media as they develop. Rather than relying solely on engineering disciplines
to design and implement new media, communication researchers should
I
)ecome involved in the design and implenientation o f new media systems
I-lefore they are institutionalized.
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