15594_Kellert_3p_ffirs.f.qxd 12/5/07 12:03 PM Page ii

Biophilic Design

15594_Kellert_3p_ffirs.f.qxd 12/5/07 12:03 PM Page i

15594_Kellert_3p_ffirs.f.qxd 12/5/07 12:03 PM Page ii

The Theory, Science, and Practiceof Bringing Buildings to Life

EDITED BY:

Stephen R. Kellert

Judith H. Heerwagen

Martin L. Mador

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Biophilic Design

15594_Kellert_3p_ffirs.f.qxd 12/5/07 12:03 PM Page iii

This book is printed on acid-free paper. ●

Copyright © 2008 by Stephen R. Kellert, Judith H. Heerwagen, and Martin L. Mador. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form orby any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permit-ted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior writtenpermission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to theCopyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressedto the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201)748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and the author have used their best ef-forts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy orcompleteness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of mer-chantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales repre-sentatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable foryour situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor theauthor shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information about our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care De-partment within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax(317) 572-4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print maynot be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site atwww.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Biophilic design : the theory, science, and practice of bringing buildings to life / edited by Stephen R.Kellert, Judith H. Heerwagen, Martin L. Mador.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-470-16334-4 (cloth)

1. Architecture—Environmental aspects 2. Architecture—Human factors. I. Kellert, Stephen R. II. Heerwagen, Judith H., 1944– III. Mador, Martin L., 1949–

NA2542.35.E44 2008720'.47—dc22

2007023228

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

100%TOTAL RECYCLED PAPER

100% POSTCONSUMER PAPER

15594_Kellert_3p_ffirs.f.qxd 12/5/07 12:03 PM Page iv

Preface viiStephen R. Kellert and Judith H. Heerwagen

Acknowledgments xi

Prologue: In Retrospect xiiiHillary Brown

PART I The Theory of Biophilic Design 1

Chapter 1 Dimensions, Elements, and Attributes of Biophilic Design 3Stephen R. Kellert

Chapter 2 The Nature of Human Nature 21Edward O. Wilson

Chapter 3 A Good Place to Settle: Biomimicry, Biophilia, and the Return of Nature’s Inspiration to Architecture 27Janine Benyus

Chapter 4 Water, Biophilic Design, and the Built Environment 43Martin L. Mador

Chapter 5 Neuroscience, the Natural Environment, and Building Design 59Nikos A. Salingaros and Kenneth G. Masden II

PART II The Science and Benefits of Biophilic Design 85

Chapter 6 Biophilic Theory and Research for Healthcare Design 87Roger S. Ulrich

Chapter 7 Nature Contact and Human Health: Building the Evidence Base 107Howard Frumkin

Chapter 8 Where Windows Become Doors 119Vivian Loftness with Megan Snyder

Chapter 9 Restorative Environmental Design: What, When, Where, and for Whom? 133Terry Hartig, Tina Bringslimark, and Grete Grindal Patil

Chapter 10 Healthy Planet, Healthy Children: Designing Nature into the Daily Spaces of Childhood 153Robin C. Moore and Clare Cooper Marcus

v

Contents

15594_Kellert_3p_ftoc.f.qxd 12/5/07 12:03 PM Page v

vi Contents

Chapter 11 Children and the Success of Biophilic Design 205Richard Louv

Chapter 12 The Extinction of Natural Experience in the Built Environment 213David Orr and Robert Michael Pyle

Part III The Practice of Biophilic Design 225

Chapter 13 Biophilia and Sensory Aesthetics 227Judith H. Heerwagen and Bert Gregory

Chapter 14 Evolving an Environmental Aesthetic 243Stephen Kieran

Chapter 15 The Picture Window: The Problem of Viewing Nature Through Glass 253Kent Bloomer

Chapter 16 Biophilic Architectural Space 263Grant Hildebrand

Chapter 17 Toward Biophilic Cities: Strategies for Integrating Nature into Urban Design 277Timothy Beatley

Chapter 18 Green Urbanism: Developing Restorative Urban Biophilia 297Jonathan F. P. Rose

Chapter 19 The Greening of the Brain 307Pliny Fisk III

Chapter 20 Bringing Buildings to Life 313Tom Bender

Chapter 21 Biophilia in Practice: Buildings That Connect People with Nature 325Alex Wilson

Chapter 22 Transforming Building Practices Through Biophilic Design 335Jenifer Seal Cramer and William Dee Browning

Chapter 23 Reflections on Implementing Biophilic Design 347Bob Berkebile and Bob Fox, with Alice Hartley

Contributors 357

Image Credits 365

Index 371

15594_Kellert_3p_ftoc.f.qxd 12/5/07 12:03 PM Page vi

T his book immodestly aspires to help mend theprevailing breach existing in our society betweenthe modern built environment and the human

need for contact with the natural world. In this regard,the chapters in this volume focus on the theory, science,and practice of what we call biophilic design, an innovativeapproach that emphasizes the necessity of maintaining,enhancing, and restoring the beneficial experience of na-ture in the built environment. Although we present bio-philic design as an innovation today, ironically, it was theway buildings were designed for much of human history.Integration with the natural environment; use of localmaterials, themes and patterns of nature in building ar-tifacts; connection to culture and heritage; and morewere all tools and methods used by builders, artisans, anddesigners to create structures still among the most func-tional, beautiful, and enduring in the world.

The authors in this book represent widely diversedisciplines, including architects, natural scientists, socialscientists, health professionals, developers, practitioners,and others who offer an original and timely vision ofhow we can achieve not just a sustainable but also a moresatisfying and fulfilling modern society in harmony withnature. Collectively, they articulate a paradigm shift inhow we design and build with nature in mind. Still, bio-philic design is not about greening our buildings or sim-ply increasing their aesthetic appeal through insertingtrees and shrubs. Much more, it is about humanity’splace in nature, and the natural world’s place in humansociety, a space where mutuality, respect, and enrichingrelation can and should exist at all levels and emerge asthe norm rather than the exception.

Biophilic design at any scale from buildings to citiesbegins with a simple question: How does the built en-vironment affect the natural environment, and how willnature affect human experience and aspiration? Most ofall, how can we achieve sustained and reciprocal bene-fits between the two?

The idea of biophilic design arises from the increas-ing recognition that the human mind and body evolvedin a sensorially rich world, one that continues to be crit-ical to people’s health, productivity, emotional, intellec-tual, and even spiritual well-being. The emergenceduring the modern age of large-scale agriculture, indus-try, artificial fabrication, engineering, electronics, andthe city represents but a tiny fraction of our species’evolutionary history. Humanity evolved in adaptive re-sponse to natural conditions and stimuli, such as sun-light, weather, water, plants, animals, landscapes, andhabitats, which continue to be essential contexts forhuman maturation, functional development, and ulti-mately survival.

Unfortunately, modern technical and engineeringaccomplishments have fostered the belief that humanscan transcend their natural and genetic heritage. Thispresumption has encouraged a view of humanity as hav-ing escaped the dictates of natural systems, with humanprogress and civilization measured by its capacity forfundamentally altering and transforming the naturalworld. This dangerous illusion has given rise to an ar-chitectural practice that encourages overexploitation,environmental degradation, and separation of peoplefrom natural systems and processes. The dominant par-adigm of design and development of the modern builtenvironment has become one of unsustainable energyand resource consumption, extensive air and water pol-lution, widespread atmospheric and climate alteration,excessive waste generation, unhealthy indoor environ-mental conditions, increasing alienation from nature,and growing “placelessness.” One of the volume’s au-thors, David Orr (1999:212–213), described this lam-entable condition in this way:

Most [modern] buildings reflect no understandingof ecology or ecological processes. Most tell itsusers that knowing where they are is unimportant.

vii

Preface Stephen R. Kellert and Judith H. Heerwagen

15594_Kellert_3p_fpref.f.qxd 12/5/07 11:13 AM Page vii

Most tell its users that energy is cheap and abun-dant and can be squandered. Most are provisionedwith materials and water and dispose of their wastesin ways that tell its occupants that we are not part ofthe larger web of life. Most resonate with no part ofour biology, evolutionary experience, or aestheticsensibilities.

Recognition of the necessity to change this self-defeating paradigm has led to significant efforts at min-imizing and mitigating the adverse environmental andhuman health impacts of modern development. Theseefforts have resulted in the growth of the sustainable orgreen design movement, dramatically illustrated by theextraordinary rise of the U.S. Green Building Council’sLEED certification and rating system. While com-mendable and necessary, these efforts will ultimately beinsufficient to achieving the long-term goal of a sustain-able, healthy, and well-functioning society.

The basic deficiency of current sustainable design isa narrow focus on avoiding harmful environmental im-pacts, or what we call low environmental impact design.Low environmental impact design, while fundamentaland essential, fails to address the equally critical needsof diminishing human separation from nature, enhanc-ing positive contact with environmental processes, andbuilding within a culturally and ecologically relevantcontext, all basic to human health, productivity, andwell-being. These latter objectives are the essence ofbiophilic design. True and lasting sustainability mustcombine both low environmental impact and biophilicdesign, the result being what is called restorative envi-ronmental design (Kellert 2005). This book, in effect,contends that biophilic design has been until now thelargely missing link in current sustainable design. Thevarious chapters attempt to redress this imbalance.

The notion of biophilic design derives from the con-cept of biophilia, the idea that humans possess a biolog-ical inclination to affiliate with natural systems andprocesses instrumental in their health and productivity.Originally proposed by the eminent biologist and one ofthe volume’s authors, Edward O. Wilson, biophilia hasbeen eloquently described by Wilson in this way(1984:35): “To explore and affiliate with life is a deepand complicated process in mental development. To an

extent still undervalued . . ., our existence depends onthis propensity, our spirit is woven from it, hope rises onits currents.” The idea of biophilia is elucidated else-where (Wilson 1984, Kellert and Wilson 1993, Kellert1997), and described in chapters in this volume byKellert and E. O. Wilson.

Biophilic design is the expression of the inherenthuman need to affiliate with nature in the design of thebuilt environment. The basic premise of biophilic de-sign is that the positive experience of natural systemsand processes in our buildings and constructed land-scapes remains critical to human performance and well-being. Various chapters in the volume cite growingscientific evidence to corroborate this assumption instudies of health care, the workplace, childhood devel-opment, community functioning, and more. More gen-erally, the authors offer insight and understandingregarding the theory, science, and practice of biophilicdesign.

Part I of the book focuses on a conceptual under-standing of biophilia and biophilic design. Chapters byKellert, E. O. Wilson, Benyus, Mador, and Salingarosand Masden offer various biological and cultural under-standings of the human need to affiliate with naturalsystems, and how this inclination can be achievedthrough design of the built environment. The authorsaddress the neglect of the human-nature connection inmodern architecture and construction, a condition theeminent architectural historian Vincent Scully de-scribed in this way (1991:11): “The relationship of man-made structures to the natural world . . . has beenneglected by architecture. . . . There are many reasonsfor this. Foremost among them . . . is the blindness ofthe contemporary urban world to everything that is notitself, to nature most of all.”

A major cause for this blindness has been the lack ofempirical evidence revealing the illogical and self-defeating consequences of designing in adversarial rela-tion to the natural environment. Part II of the bookprovides much of this needed evidentiary material, par-ticularly the many health and productivity benefits ofbiophilic design, as well as the harmful consequences ofimpeding and degrading human contact with naturalsystems and processes. Chapters by Ulrich, Frumkin,Loftness, and Hartig and colleagues delineate a range of

viii Preface

15594_Kellert_3p_fpref.f.qxd 12/5/07 11:13 AM Page viii

health, physical, emotional, and intellectual advantagesof building and landscape designs that facilitate the pos-itive experience of nature. Additional chapters byMoore and Marcus, Louv, and Pyle and Orr describethe importance of nature in childhood maturation, howto foster this connection through the design of residen-tial and educational settings, and the deleterious and po-tentially disastrous consequences of doing otherwise.

Part III focuses on the practical challenge of imple-menting biophilic design, most particularly how totransform conventional and prevailing sustainable de-sign practice. Chapters by Heerwagen and Gregory,Kieran, Bloomer, Hildebrand, Fisk, and Bender provideinsight and guidance regarding the architectural expres-sion of biophilic design, focusing largely on the build-ing and site scale. Additional chapters by Beatley and

Rose emphasize how to foster the human-nature con-nection at the neighborhood, community, and urbanscales, even what Beatley ambitiously calls the creationof “biophilic cities.” The challenge of transforming theprocess of design and development essential to imple-menting biophilic design is addressed in chapters byAlex Wilson, Cramer and Browning, and Fox andBerkebile.

We believe this volume will greatly advance our no-tions of sustainable, biophilic, and restorative environ-mental design. Still, our efforts remain a work inprogress, with much more to learn about the elusive expression of the inherent human need to affiliate with nature in the design and construction of ourbuildings, landscapes, communities, neighborhoods,and cities.

Preface ix

REFERENCES

Kellert, S. 1997. Kinship to Mastery: Biophilia in Human Evolu-tion and Development. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Kellert, S. 2005. Building for Life: Understanding and Designingthe Human-Nature Connection. Washington, DC: IslandPress.

Kellert, S., and E.O. Wilson, eds. 1993. The Biophilia Hypoth-esis. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Orr, D. 1999. “Architecture as Pedagogy.” In Reshaping the Built Environment, edited by C. Kibert. Washington, DC:Island Press.

Scully, V. 1991. Architecture: The Natural and the Manmade.New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Wilson, E. O. 1984. Biophilia: The Human Bond with OtherSpecies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

15594_Kellert_3p_fpref.f.qxd 12/5/07 11:13 AM Page ix

15594_Kellert_3p_fpref.f.qxd 12/5/07 11:13 AM Page x

This timely and, we hope, highly relevant bookemerged from a three-day meeting in a beautiful re-treat setting known as “Whispering Pines” in ruralRhode Island in May 2006. This extraordinary settingand gathering of leading scientists, designers, practi-tioners, and others was made possible by the supportof many generous benefactors. We particularly appre-ciate the major assistance of the Geraldine R. DodgeFoundation and its visionary president, David Grant.Additional critical support was provided by the Williamand Flora Hewlett Foundation, the Edward andDorothy Kempf Fund at Yale University, the VervaneFoundation and especially Josephine Merck, the HixonCenter for Urban Ecology at the Yale School of

Forestry and Environmental Studies, and Rev. Albert P.Neilson. Further support for the project was providedby the Henry Luce Foundation.

A number of Yale University students were espe-cially helpful in hosting the symposium and in othervital ways. Particular thanks are due Ben Shepherd.Others who provided critical assistance included Rod-erick Bates, Christopher Clement, Gwen Emery, MarenHaus, Sasha Novograd, Judy Preston, Chris Rubino, JillSavery, Ali Senauer, Adrienne Swiatocha, Terry Terhaar,and Christopher Thompson.

Finally, we very much thank our editor at John Wiley,Margaret Cummins, for her considerable confidence andsupport.

xi

Acknowledgments

15594_Kellert_3p_fack.f.qxd 12/5/07 11:12 AM Page xi

15594_Kellert_3p_fack.f.qxd 12/5/07 11:12 AM Page xii

During a visit to Turkey more than two decadesago, my companions and I shared pilgrimages tothat country’s Arcadian ruins, the rock-cut un-

derworld of Cappadocia, and other rewarding sights. Atone stop along the Aegean coast, we spent the night sea-side at a resort community. With construction detrituseverywhere, it was in a graceless stage of formation, itsplatted but unbuilt streets undoing the modesty of thevillage. A dozen hotels along the beach elbowed for seafrontage, gleaming glass and concrete towers, eachstraining to trump the other as more formally promi-nent, more luxuriously endowed.

In contrast, the entry to our hotel was undistin-guished, even obscure, a suggestive breach in a whitewall, solid for its several-storied height. Over thethreshold, we found ourselves within a long narrowcourtyard open to the elements. The sky overhead (ex-perienced as one would an artwork by James Turrell—not as passive observer, but as participant) was an azureslash. At the far end, the sky ballooned above what ap-peared to be a plaza.

We were seduced down this street that was mostlyself-shaded and cooled by a gentle updraft. Trees andplantings dotted the surfaces, muting the noise of ourprogress. Underfoot, the upended and sea worn cob-ble paving was punctuated with sandstone slabs at theentries to adjacent spaces, texturing our sound as alter-natively smooth or gritty down the length of the cor-ridor.

Overhead, the walls were faced with windows anddoors that opened onto balconies hanging out over thisnarrow street, beaming like so many smiles. Most case-ments were flung open, others still shuttered against themorning. Quite a few were peopled, elbows on sills,whispering shared delight at awakening in this commu-nal scene.

The building was vocalizing, its diverse din a con-temporary rendering of an ancient Mediterranean vil-

lage. From the far end came soft social sounds—foot-falls, a child’s exclamation, the soft rise and fall of trebleand bass voices. Fountains and laughter stippled the air,while clattering silverware broadcast the locale of a café.From here, just as our ears took in the softness of break-ing waves, our nostrils detected and eyes at once con-firmed the full expanse of the Aegean. Magnifying oursenses while buffering us from everything else, the hotelwas channeling the sea.

I remember my sense of gratification as well as cu-rious agitation in taking in this unexpected place, an ex-perience of architectural pleasure that resonated as bothnew and unfathomably familiar. For the first (and sincethen, only) time I knew, as I turned to my companionsand announced with conviction, that a woman had de-signed this building. To my friends’ astonishment, thehotel manager readily confirmed that yes, in fact, awoman-led practice in Istanbul had won the commis-sion.

For years since, I’ve given thought to that sharp, al-most physiological insight, that instant knowing-in-my-bones that arose from a shared design sensibility. Was ithow she closed our eyes and ears to the chaos of thisbeach community, or how she choreographed ourmovements to dilate the experience in time, intensifyingthis sensual introduction to the sea? Perhaps it was herpreference for socialized space, invoking a primordialpractice of sharing exquisite places rather than reserv-ing them for private consumption. In setting itself apart,her retreat, after all, recalled the archetypal Islamic car-avansary—that protective, walled compound found atintervals along desert trading routes where travelers to-gether sought refreshment and protection. How com-pelling was this concept, in contrast to the extravagantresorts next door that claimed visual primacy and exclu-sivity, ignoring the cultural landscape.

Given an emergent environmental consciousness atthe time, I now more fully appreciate this architect’s ac-

xiii

Prologue: In Retrospect Hillary Brown

15594_Kellert_3p_flast.f.qxd 12/5/07 11:12 AM Page xiii