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Oseana, Volume XVIII, Nomor 1 :1 - 24 ISSN 0216 - 1877

CULTURE POTENTIAL OF RABBITFISHES, SIGANUS ( SIGANIDAE )

by

Prapto Darsono 1)

ABSTRAK

POTENSI BUDIDAYA IKAN BERONANG, Siganus (Siganidae). Ikan beronang, siganid, menjadiperhatian karena mempunyaipotensi untuk dibudidayakan. Perminta-an pasar terhadap jenis-jenis ikan ini cenderung meningkat Dalam pada itu pembesar-annya relatif mudahy karena ikan ini adalah herbivore. Di dalam kolam pemeliharaan bisa diberi makan berbagai variasi "makanan ikan ".

Sebanyak 27 jenis telah diidentifikasikan dan tersebar di daerah Mediteranian ti-mur dan Indo-Pasifik. Sebagian besar jenis ikan tersebut hidup menggerombol (school-ing), hidup di habitat terumbu karang dan estuari. Siklus hidup ikan ini melalui fase larva planktonik setelah telur menetas, kemudian larva mengalami metamorfosa men-jadijuvenil (individu muda) dan tumbuh menjadi dewasa.

Tidak terlihat jelas tanda tanda seksual dimorphisma. Namun terlihat kecende-rungan bahwa yang betina lebih besar dari yang jantan pada fase dewasa (mature). Pada musim pijah, ada kecenderungan perbedaan warna antara jantan dan betina. Jantan agak lebih cerah dibanding yang betina. Fekunditas nampaknya bervariasi jumlahnya menurut jenisnya.

Makanan jenis ikan ini adalah berbagai jenis algae bentik dengan cara "merum-put* .'Meskipun begitu, kelompok jenis ikan ini berpotensi omnivorous. Dalam kolam pemeliharaan jenis ikan ini tumbuh normal dengan makanan alami maupun makanan buatan. Mereka bisa hidup baik dalam kepadatan di kolam oleh sifat alaminya yang suka bergerombol. Disamping itu nampaknya jenis ikan ini tahan terhadap perubahan salinitas dan suhu yang relatif besar.

Usaha untuk mengetahui berbagai aspek biologi jenis-jenis ikan ini telah dilaku-kan oleh banyak pakar. Dalam tulisan ini dikemukakan "review" terhadap siklus hidup, reproduksi, makanan dan pertumbuhannya.

1) Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Biologi Laut, Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Oseanologi - LIPI, Jakarta.

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sumber:www.oseanografi.lipi.go.id

Oseana, Volume XVIII No. 1, 1993

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INTRODUCTION

Rabbitfish, Siganidae, have got atten-tion since they show a great potential for culture (BEN-TUVIA et al. 1973; LAM, 1974; PACOLI, 1983). It has a good demand for both export and local consumption in some countries (LAM 1974). It has tender and delicious meat with relatively few bones (BEN-TUVIA et al 1973; LAM 1974; PUTRO et al. 1985).

Many attempts have been made in order to learn more about culturing siganid. Hieir life cycle in nature have mostly known (THRESHER 1984). They have annual re-productive cycle, in certain time at spring and early summer we can find juvenile siga-nid (fry) in abundance (LAM 1974).

Attempts to breed rabbitfishes in captivity were first reported by MANACOP in 1937 (JUARIO et al. 1985) and by FUJITA & UENO (1954). After that a lot of works which studied about siganid have been conducted until recently (AVIA & JUARIO 1987). Several studies have ap-peared on the food requirements of siganids (BEN-TUVIA et al 1973; TSUDA & BRY-AN 1973; VON WESTERNHAGEN 1973), and on controlled artificial fertilization (POPPER et al 1973, BRYAN et al 1975, JUARIO et al, 1985). In this paper, review of some of those works will be presented, especially in the information of repro-duction, feeding and growth.

NATURE OF SIGANID

Diversity of Species THRESHER (1984) described that

rabbitfish, Siganid, are fairly large, latteraly compresed schooling fishers. The siganid is a family of tropical to sub tropical marine,

herbivourous fishes of the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans (LAM 1974, WOOD-LAND & ALEN 1977; THRESHER 1984).

The taxonomy of the siganids is not settled (LAM 1974). There is considerable confusion in the literature regarding identi-fication of siganid species. For doing so, LAM (1974) urged to refer WOODLAND'S suggested nomenclature. The difficulty of species identification is also mentioned by GAWEL & WOODLAND (1974), WOOD-1AND & RANDALL (1979) and WOOD-LAND (1990). The difficulties based on notorious for the siganids' morphology uniformity. Becuase of this reason, tradi-tionaly, differences in color pattern have been used to distinguish the species but it is not always satisfactory. GAWEL & WOODLAND (174) tried to use clustering techniques to classify specimens into clus-ters on the basis of large number of atri-butes. Some new species described lately are illustrated in figure 1.

LAM (1974), WOODLAND & ALLEN (1977), CARCASSON (1977), THRESHER (1984) and NELSON (1984) estimated approximately 25 species of siganid. Recent revision made by WOODLAND (1990) counts 27 known species in the family. Two new species described are Siganus niger and S. randalli (WOODLAND 1990). About 15 of those are schooling species whose habitat range from estuaries to coral reef (WOOD-LAND & ALLEN 1977). GAWEL & WOOD-LAND (1974) described a new species from Fiji, Siganus (Lo) uspi, also mentioned S. vulpinus and S. unimaculatus. WOODLAND & RANDALL (1979) mentioned siganid species from the central and western Indian ocean are S. puelloides, S. argenteus, S. javus, S. stellatus, 5. sutor, S. luridus, S. rivulatus, S. stellatus, and other species



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form the eastern Indian ocean, S. magni-ficus and S. trispilos. LAM (1974) gave a list of some economically important si-ganid species in few selected countries (Table 1). The 27 known species revised by WOODLAND (1990) consists of two sub-genus which are Siganus and Lo. The first subgenus consists of 22 species : S. luridus, S. sutor, S. fuscescens, S. argenteus, S. lineatus, S. javus, S. canaliculatus, S.punc-tatus, S. guttatus, S. corallinus, S. puellus, S. doliatusy S. spinus, S. labryinthodes, S. stellatusy S. virgatus, S. puelloides, S. punctatissimus, S. randalli, S. rivulatus, S. vermiculatus, S. trispilos. The subgenus Lo consists of five species, S. (Lo) magni-ficus, S. (Lo) niger, S. (Lo) vulvinus, S. (Lo) unimaculatus and S. (Lo) uspi.

Distribution & Habitat Rabbitfish are widely distributed and

some are considered to be an excelent food fish in the Eastern Mediterranean and lndo-Pacific Region (BEN-TUVIA 1973; LAM 1974; CARCASSON 1977; THRESHER 1984; JUARIO etal. 1985), but none found in Hawaii (CARCASSON 1977; WOOD-LAND 1990).

WOODLAND & ALLEN (1977) stated that the center of distribution of the family in term of numbers of species is the Indo-Malayan Archipelago. The number of species attenuates to the east and west of this regi-on. However they were surprised that only few species have spread to the western Indi-an Ocean, considering the presence of a con-tinous coastline from the Archipelago to South Africa. So far WOODLAND & AL-LEN (1977) noted that only six species are recorded in that area and three of them are endemic.Mean while, WOODLAND & RAN-

DALL (1979) found eight siganid species from central and western Indian Ocean, and noted four species ofsiganids (S. rivulatus, S. luridus, S. rostratus, S. stellatus) occur in the Red Sea, two of which (S. rivulatus and S. luridus) have migrated through the Suez canal and now established in the Eastern Mediterranean (BEN-TUVIA et a/., 1973; LAM 1974).

Siganids occupy a wide range of habi-tats in the coastal waters of the tropical and subtropical Indian and Western Pacific Ocean (GUNDERMANN et al. 1983). Their habitat range from estuaries to coral reef (WOODLAND & ALLEN 1977). Although the ecology of siganid has been little studied (LAM 1974), in general siganid often occur in large schools on and around grass or reef flats. They may also be found in mangrove or harbour areas. Some species (S. gut-tatus and S. vermiculatus) may even enter rivers and lake. A list of habitat of some siganid species is given in table 2 (LAM 1974).

Life History Siganid's fertilized eggs will settle on

the bottom (FUJITA & UENO 1954; THRE-SHER, 1984), in some hours will hatch into planktonic larvae (MAY et al. 1974) and then metamorphose into juvenile (THRE-SHER 1984). Juvenile will grow to be adult and mature then spawn. LAM (1974) reported that juvenile Siganus canaliculatus apper in late Spring, reach sexual maturity by the following Winter, and spawn in that Spring, after which most fish apparently die. HASSE et al. (1977) noted that indivi-dual fish probably spawn several times in a given year, and can reach at least two years longevity.



Table 1. Some economically important siganid species in a few selected countries (From LAM 1974).

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Figure 1. New species described lately

A. Siganus puelloides (from Woodland & Randall 1979) B. Siganus trispilos (from Woodland & Allen 1977) C. Siganus uspi (from Gawel & Woodland 1974)

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Siganid eggs are sperical, adhesive, demersal, transparent, colorless, and small, ranging in diameter from 0.42 mm (S. canali-culatus) to 0.66 mm (S. fuscescens) (THRE-SHER, 1984). Large female may release up to 500,000 eggs at a time, simply scattering them over the bottom (LAM 1974). Mean-while, (HASSE et al. (1977) hypothesized that the adhesive eggs stick to floating pieces of plant material and other flatsome and so remain in the water column until hatching, based on the influence of water movement and the lack of visible eggs on the bottom after a night of spawning.

Egg develop rapidly, and hatching occurs in 25 to 32 hours at 27° to 29°C (MAY et al, 1974; POPPER et al 1973; VON WESTERNHAGEN & ROSENTHAL 1975). Newly hatched larvae range in size from 0.76 mm in S. canaliculatus (THRE-SHER 1984) to 2.60 mm in S. fuscescens (FUJITA & UENO 1954). Larvae siganids are planktonic and eat their yolk within two or three days POPPER et al., 1973).

Duration of the planktonic stage is about 25 days (23 days for S. canaliculatus in MAY et al 1974; 29 days for S. leneatus in BRYAN & MADRAISAU 1977), with newly metamorphosed fish between 20 and 26 mm long, grow become juvenile.

Juvenile siganids are usually mottled gray and brown, form small schools, and graze along the bottom for benthic algae (THRESHER 1984).

REPRODUCTION

Sexual Dimorphisma No obvious dimorphism between male

and female siganid (THRESHER, 1984). However, there is a tendency that females to be larger than males at maturity stage

(LAM, 1974; GUNDERMANN et a/., 1983; THRESHER, 1984). Other than size, BRY-AN et a/., (1975) reported that females of Siganus canaliculatus are slightly deeper-bodied than the males.

During spawning season, mature siga-nid showed change in color. The male of S. guttatus became lighter and the female darker in ground color (HARA et al., 1986 a). In S. vermiculatus, the change of color was noted that the vermiculated pattern nearly disappears and is replaced by a wide horizontal dark shape which devides the body into two equal bright sections, and the dorsal, anal and caudal fins become darker than usual around the edges, giving the impression of a black frame around the body (GUNDERMANN et a/., 1983).

Mature females were distinguished from males by their swollen and soft abdo-mens, whereas milt flowed from the uroge-nital pore of the male under light pressure (HARA et al., 1986 b). In the water the female is less active than the male because of the weight of the ripe eggs (LAM 1974).

Spawning LAM (1974) refered to some pre-

vious authors notes that size of maturity of males Siganus canaliculatus are at stan-dard lenghts of 11 - 14 cm, while females 1 3 - 2 1 cm, but mature males longer than 14 cm standard lenght have also been recorded. Ripe females of S. lineatus was found at about 14 - 22 cm standard lenght. While VON WESTERNHAGEN (1983) noted that S. canaliculatus start to mature at 11 cm lenght, S, spinus mature at a lenght about 12 cm, and S. virgatus mature at 13.5 cm. The smallest mature female of S. vermiculatus caught was 12 cm (240 g) (GUNDERMANN et al. 1983).



Table 2. Habitats of some siganid species ( From LAM 1974 )

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The number of eggs produced by female siganid varies among species. LAM (1974) estimated the number of egs of S. canaliculatus about 300,000 - 500,000. In S. vermiculatus, at one time spawn was estimated at more than 350.000 for a female of 240 g (GUNDERMANN et al. 1983). The estimation number of eggs of S. guttatus spawned per female varied from 210,000 to 1,160,000 with the average was 570,000 eggs (HARA etal. 1988 b).

HARA et al. (1986 a) made observa-tion of the spawning behavior of S. guttatus. Before actual spawning, it was observed that the male and the female were usually seen in a side-to-side position. They swam slowly to near the surface, the male usually following the female. During actual spawn-ing, the pair swam side by side, with the female slightly ahead of the male. When spawning occured, the male approached the female, touched her anal region, took up a position beside her, showed a rigid shaking movement, then separated from her. The complete observation is illustrated in figure 2.

Existence of a lunar spawning rhytm is known in several siganid species (HARA et al. 1986 b). Spawning have been reported to occur 4 - 7 days after the new moon in S. canaliculatus (HASSE et al. 1977); on or around the first lunar quarter in S. vermiculatus (POPPER etal. 1976;POPPER & GUNDERMANN, 1976; GUNDERMANN et al. 1983); 3 days preceding the full moon in S. lineatus (BRYAN & MADRAISAU 1977); and 2 - 4 days after the new moon in S. argenteus (BURGAN & ZSELECSKY 1979, in HARA etal.y 1986 b). In S. gutta-tus, spawning dates fell within the period between the first quarter and the full moon, on lunar days 9 to 16 (HARA et ah 1986 b).

All of those show that the spawning dates of siganids fall within the days between the new moon and the full moon, centering around the first quarter. Spawning took place around midnight or earliest morning (HASSE et al. 1977; THRESHER 1984). Most siganid fishes may spawn in captivity during many months of the year. The ability to spawn repeatedly all year round in captivity of S. guttatus has been reported by HARA et al. (1986 b). This finding suggests that hormonal treatment (BRYAN et al. 1975) may not be necessary if spawnings are attempted on the right days of lunar month. Beside that, nutrition of spawner is another factor for successful natural and repeated spawning of captive siganids (LAM,1974; HARA et al. 1986b).

FEEDING

Siganids are browsing herbivores feed-ing in large to small schools on variety of benthic algae (TSUDA & BRYAN 1973, VON WESTERNHAGEN 1973; BWATHON-DI 1982). In nature, they eat some species of algae, agrophytes of the genera Graeilaria, Hypnea, Laurencia proved to be the most preferred died (VON WESTERNHAGEN, 1973). Besides that they also feed on ente-morpha, Ulva, Sargassum, Turbinaria and Enhalus, at least 12 of 22 different algae species and 2 vascular plants were eaten by the siganids. JONES (1968) in (TSUDA & BRYAN 1973) analized stomach contents in adult Siganus spinus found some algae genera : Padina, Cladophoropsis, Gelidium, Hypnea, Dictyota, Spacelaria, Ectocarpus, and Jania. While TSUDA & BRYAN (1973) found that 10 of 45 common genera of reef flat algae were eaten by S. argenteus and S. spinus. It was observed that both species



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have preference in the order of Enteromor-pha, Feldmania, Dubesia, and Cladophorop-sis. Numerus small invertebrates were ingested accidentally, since almost of them live on algae and eelgrass (VON WESTERN-HAGEN 1973).

The larva siganids are most likely plankton feeder (LAM 1974). In some ex-periments of rearing larva, they are fed with rotifer, Brachionus plicatilis, eggs of the oyster Crassostrea echinata and nauplii of Artemia salina (MAY et al 1974; HARA et al 1986; JUARIO et al. 1985). Smaller and younger siganids exhibit different food preference from those of older individuals. The diet in the fry constitute the filamentous green algae, Rhizoclonium sp. and the vascular plant Enhalus sp. (VON WESTERN-HAGEN 1973).

Although siganids may be primarily herbivorous in nature, they are potentially omnivorous. Some indications observed that siganids are not obligatory herbivores (LAM, 1974). In captivity, S. canaliculatus showed to feed on all kinds of food offered, such as chicken food pellets, cooked rice, dried shrimps and even fish scraps. Similarly, S. rivulatus kept in aquaria will feed on a variety of foodstuffs such as chopped fish or mollusc, fish meal, pellets, seaweeds and lettuce (BEN-TUV1A et al, 1973). Based on the omnivorous potential of si-ganids, PARAZO (1990) tried to look for economical formulated feeds for commercial scale.

DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH

Siganids can attain their maximum size differently of each species. Siganus guttatus can attain weight of more than 1 kg (JUARIO et al 1985). Females S.

vermiculatus can reach 45 cm long and 2.3 kg weight (GUNDERMANN et al, 1983), but the largest fish measured in their study was a female 40 cm long (1800 g) and a male 36 cm (1200 g). In a series of samples colleected throughout the year was found the modal lenght of adult female was around 31 cm (700 g) and of males 30 cm (600 g). BWATHONDI (1982) noted that marketable size of S. canaliculatus in Tanzania was ranged between 20.51 and 25.22 cm fork lenght. In the Philippines, S. concatenata, S. canaliculatus, S. strio-lata, S. virgata, when fully grown they reach an approximate size of 35 - 40 cm (VON WESTERNHAGEN1974).

Growth rate of each species of siganid are not the same. However, siganid reach their maturity as longest as one year old (LAM, 1974). S. canaliculatus grows to 80 % at its adult size in six months and reachs maturity in one year (HASSE et al, 1977). The average growth rate of 0.84 and 0.69 mm/day and maximum rates of 1.10 and 0.93 mm/day of S. canaliculatus was reported by MAY et al (1974). While BWATHONDI (1982) recorded the growth of S. canaliculatus in Tanzania of an average increase of 0.81 cm per week for fish of initial average lenght 4.84 cm and 0.45 cm per week for fish of initial average lenght of 1 1 . 1 7 cm. In the Philippine, it grows to a mean standart lenght of 8 cm in about three months, 10 cm in about four and a half months, and 14 cm about seven or eight months (LAM 1974), while the growth of S. canaliculatus in Singapore to about 120 gram in about 9 - 1 1 months. Another species, S rivulatus grow to about 150 gram at the end of its first year (BEN-TUVIA et al, 1973). UCHATOWICH et al (1984) found S. rivulatus fry stocked in exten-



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sively managed sea cage system grew from 3 to 150 gram in 105 days. While the species of S. vermiculatus known grows faster compared to other siganid species (GUN-DERMANN et al 1983). Fry stocked in ponds reached reproductive size of 240 g within 9 months. The size attained by the fish are : 21 - 28 mm (one month), 35 - 50 mm (two months), 72 - 90 mm (3 months) and 12 -13 cm ( 5 months).

The embryonic development of siganid species is similar. It has been descsribed for S. fuscescen (FUJITO & UENO, 1954 -figure 3), S. rivulatus (figure 4, in POPPER et al, 1973), S. canaliculatus (MAY et al 1974; WESTERNHAGEN & ROSENTHAL, 1975), S. vermiculatus (GUNDERMANN et a/., 1983) and S.guttatus (JUARIO et c/., 1985; HARA et a/., 1986 - figure 5). Ferti-lized eggs development is rapid, and hatching occurs in 25 to 32 hours at 27 ° to 29 ° C (MkYet al 1974, POPPER et al 1973, VON WESTERNHAGEN & ROSENTHAL 1975).

Newly hacthed larva range in size from 0.76 mm to 2.60 mm, have a small yolk sac containing one to several oil drop-lets near the anteriormost point, and lack pectoral fin folds, a functional mouth, or pigment in the eyes. The larvae are photo-positive and drift head-down at the sur-face (MAY et al 1974, BRYAN & MA-DRASSAU 1977). The yolk sac persists for two to three days and fisrt feeding by S. rivulatus occurs on day four or five, after the mouth has developed and the anus is open (POPPER et al 1973). Dura-tion of the plank tonic stage is about 25 days, with newly metamorphosed fish between 20 and 26 mm long. Larva S. canaliculatus began to metamorphose on day

23 (MAY et al 1974), S. vermiculatus within 23 to 25 days (GUNDERMANN et al 1983), while S. lineatus required 35 days (BRYAN & MADRAISAU 1977). In figure 6 is showed larva development of S. canaliculatus and S. vermiculatus which are very similar (GUNDERMANN etal 1983).

The process of metamorphosis include changes in coloration (figure 7), behavior, and feeding habit (GUNDERMANN et a/., 1983). The transparent larvae, with only a few spots of black pigmentation, become fully pigmented post larvae within 3 to 6 hours. The new pigmentation is arranged in a simple form of the vermiculated pattern typical of S. vermiculatus (Figure 8). BRY-AN & MADRAISAU (1977) identified three development stages of siganid larvae that are the dark-head carnivora stage (the gut is a simple coil), the brown-head omni-vorous stage (the gut is elongated and con-voluted into a complex coil), the juvenile herbivorous stage (the gut is highly eloo-and convoluted into a compex coil).

CULTURE POTENTIAL

Fishes of the family Siganidae have been identified as potential candidates for culture for a number os reasons, including their desirability as human food, their her-bivorous feeding habits, and other factors (LAM, 1974; BRYAN & MADRAISAU, 1977; WOODLAND & ALLEN, 1977; GUNDERMANN et a/., 1983). The great demand for siganid species in some coun-tries, make it a most suitable fish for culture practice in the region (BWATHON-DI, 1982).



Figure 2. Spawning behavior of Siganus guttatus (from HARA et al 1986a)

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Figure 3. Embrionic and early larval development of S. fuscescen (from FUJITA & UENO 1954).

A. 4 cell stage; 1 hour and 10 minutes after insemination. B. 8 cell stage; 1 hour and 15 minutes. C. Morula stage; 2 hours and 15 minutes. D. Blastula stage; 5 hours and 5 minutes. E. Formation of the embryonal body; 6 hours and minutes. F. Blastopore closes; 7 hours and 45 minutes. G. Eye balls appear; 8 hours and 45 minutes. H. 6 myotome stages. 10 hours and 45 minutes. I. 23 myotome stage; lens and otolith appear; 15 hours and 30 minutes. J. 24 myotome stage, with melanophores on the embryonal body. K. The hatching enzyme glands appear on the head, hatching takes place 3 hours later; 24 hours. L. Newly hatched larva, total length 2.6 mm., number of myotomes 8 + 16 = 24, a single fused oil-globule protruded from the yolk. M. Larva one day old, with pectoral fins formed. N. 2 days old, mouth opened. 0.3 days old.

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( A )

Figure 4. Embrionic (A) and early larval (B) development of S. rivulatus (from POPPER et al 1973).

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(I)

Figure 5. Embrionic (I) and larval (II & HI) development of S. guttatus (from HARA etal 1986 a)

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Figure 5. cont'd

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Figure 5. cont'd



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Figure 7. Changes in pattern of coloration in metamorphosis of S. guttatus (from JUARIOeta/. 1985).

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Development of vermiculated pattern in Siganus vermiculatus : (1) newly metamorphosed fry of 23 mm; (2) 2-moold juvenile of 53 mm; (3) 5-mo-old fish of 150 mm; (4) an adult fish of 23 cm; (5) an adult female of 40 cm (photographed in nature) : (6) a school of adults of 35 - 40 cm during prespawning behavior (Ngau Island, Fiji).

Siganus vermicufatus from Celebes, Indonesia (photograph by John E. Randall).

Figure 8. Development of vermiculated pattern of pigmentation of S. vermiculatus

(from GUNDERMANN et al. 1983).

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LAM (1974) reviewed culture poten-tial of siganid, that are : 1. siganids are primary herbivorous in nature, but in cap-tivity they feed on a wide variety of foods offered, 2. they appear to adapt well to captivity and grow well on a diet of natu-ral foods (algae and other plant nutrients) or artificial food pellets, 3. during certain season large number of siganid fry can be collected from coastal waters, 4. they may be able to tolerate crowded condition due to their gregarious/schooling habit, 5. they apperar to be tolerant of changes in salinity and temperature.

Investigation on rabbitfish cultivation have been done, and showed a good culture potential in the coastal area (BEN-TUVIA et al 1973, BWATHONDI 1982, WOOD-LAND & ALLEN 1977, UCHATOWICH et al 1984). However, VON WESTERN-HAGEN & ROSENTHAL(1976) againts the introduction of siganids into mariculture based on their slow growth consideration.

Induced spawning, haching and rearing of siganid larva has been done succesfully (FUJITO & UENO, 1954; POPPER et al, 1973; 1979; MAY et al. 1974; BRYAN & MADRAISAU, 1977; GUNDERMANN et al. 1983; JUARIO et al. 1985). This success of rearing larva can avoid of relying nature larva for stocking ponds. Siganid show potentially year-round spawning (HARA et al 1986 b). Repeated spwning by a single male or female may be advantageous for hatcheries having limited fasilities to hold large numbers brood stocks (BRYAN et al 1975).

LITERATURE CITED

AVILA, E.M. and J.V. JUARIO 1987. Yolk and oil globule utilization and develomen-tal morphology of the digestive tract epit-helium in larval rabbitfish, Siganus gutta-tus (Bloch). Aquaculture, 65 (3 & 4) : 319-331.

BENTUVIA, G.Wm. KISSIL and D. POP-PER 1973. Experiments in rearing rab-bitfish (Siganus rivulatus) in sea water. Aquaculture 1 : 359-364.

BRYAN, P.G. and B.B. MADRAISAU-1977. Larval Rearing and Development of Siganus lineatus (Pisces: Siganidae) from hatching through Metamorphosis. Aquaculture 10: 243 - 252.

BRYAN, P.G. ; B.B. MADRAISAU, and JP. McVEY 1975. Hormone induce and natural spawing of captive Siganus cana-liculatus (Pisces: Siganidae) year round. Micronesica, 11 : 199-204.

BWATHONDI, P.OJ. 1982. Preliminary Investigations on Rabbitfish, Siganus canaliculatus, Cultivation in Tanzania. Aquaculture, 27 (3) : 205 - 210.

BURGAN, B.G. and ZSELECZKY, K.A. 1979. Induced spawning and early deve-lopment of the rabbitfish, Siganus ar-genteus (Quoy and Gaimard), in the Phi-lippenes. Siliman «/., 26 ( 2 & 3 ) : 163-171. (Have not seen).

CARCASSON, R.H. 1977. A Field Guide to the Coral Reff Fishes of the Indian and West Pacific Oceans. William Collins Sons & Co. , Ltd. , London. 320 pp. ; 48 pis.



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FUJITA, S. and M. UENO 1954. On the development of the egg and prelarval stages of Siganus fuscescens (Houttuyn) by artificial insemination. Jpn. J. Ichlhy-o/., 3: 129-132.

GAWEL, M. and DJ. WOODLAND 1974. Siganus (lo) uspi, a new species from Fiji, and a comparison with the nominal species S. vulpinus and S. unimaculatus. Copeia 1974: 855-861.

GUNDERMANN,N.; DM, POPPER and T. UCHATOWICH 1983. Biology and life cycle of Siganus vermiculatus (Siganidae, Pisces). Pac. Sci., 37 (2): 165 -173.

HARA, S; H. KOHNO and Y. TAKI 1986a. Spawning behavior and early life history of the rabbitrish, Siganus guttatus, in the laboratory. Aquaculture 59 ( 3 & 4 ) : 273-285.

HARA, S. ; M.N. DURAY; M. PARAZO and Y. TAKI 1986b. Year-round spawning and seed production of the rabbitfish, Si-ganus guttatus. Aquaculture 59 ( 3 & 4 ); 259-272.

HASSE, J J. ; B.B. MADRAISAU, and JJP. McVEY 1977. Some aspects of the life history of Siganus canaliculatus (Park) (Pisces: Siganidae) in Palau. Micronesica, 13(2): 297-312.

JONES, R.S. 1968. Preliminary study of the food habits of the rabbitfish, Siganus spi-nus (Siganidae), with notes on the use of this fish in pisciculture. Univ. Guam Marine Lab. , mimeographed report.

( Have not seen ) JUARIO, J.V. ; M.N. DURAY; V.MDU-

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AL-THOBAITY; M. ARADA and F. BUKHARI1984. Growth of Siganus rivulatus in sea cages in the Red Sea. Aquaculture, 40 (3):273-275.

MAY, R.C. ; D. POPPER and J P. McVEY 1974. Rearing and Larval Development of Siganus canaliculatus (Park) (Pisces: Siga-nidae). Micronesica (J. Coll. Guam), 10:258-298.

MANACOP, P.R. 1937. The artifical fertili-zation of danggit, Amphacanthus oramin (Bloch and Schneider). Philipp. J. ScL, 62 : 229 - 237 . (Have not seen)

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PARAZO, MM. 1990. Effect of Dietary Protein and energy Level on Growth, Protein Utilization and Carcass Composi-tion of Rabbitfish, Siganus guttatus. Aquaculture, 86 : 41 -49.

POPPER, D. and N. GUNDERMANN 1976. A Successful Spawning and Hatching of Siganus vermiculatus under Field Condi-tions. Aquaculture 7 : 291 -292.

POPPER, D.; H. GORDIN and G.W. KISSIL 1973. Fertilization and Hatching of Rabbitfish, Siganus rivulatus,. Aquacul-ture 2:31 - 44.

POPPER, D.; R.C. MAY and T. LICHATO-WICH 1976. An Experiment in Rearing Larval Siganus vermiculatus (Valencien-nes) and Some Observation on Its Spaw ning Cycle. Aquaculture 7: 281 - 290.

PUTRO, S. ; M. SALEH and B.S.B. UTOMO 1985. Storege life of rabbitfish (Siganus sp.) during icing. FAO Fish Rep., No. 317 pp. 54-61.



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THRESHER, R.E. 1984. Reproduction in Reef Fishes. (part.Rabbitfishes: Siganidae) T.F.H. Publication, Inc. Ltd. , Neptune City: p. 281 -285.

TSUDA,R.T. and P.G. BRYAN 1973. Food Preference of Juvenile Siganus rostratus ( =S. argentus ) and S. spinus in Guam. Copeia, 3 : 604-606.

VON WESTERNHAGEN, H. 1973. The Na-tural Food of the Rabbitfishes Siganus oramin and S. striolata. Mar. Biol. , 22 : 367 - 370.

VON WESTERNHAGEN, H. 1974. Food Preferences in Cultured Rabbitfishes (Siganidae). Aquaculture 3: 109 - 117.

VON WESTENHAGEN, H. and H. RO-SENTHAL 1976. Some aspects of the

suitability of various Philippine siganid species (Siganidae) for mariculture. Aqua-culture, 9:297-311.

WOODLAND, DJ. 1990. Revision of the fish family Siganidae with description of two new species and comments of distribution and biology. Indo - Pac. Fis-hes 19: 1 -119.

WOODLAND, DJ. and G.R. ALLEN 1977 Siganus trispilos, a new species of Sigani-dae from the Eastern Indian Ocean. Cope-ia, 1977 : 617-620.

WOODLAND, D.J. and J.E. RANDALL 1979. Siganus puelloides, a new species of rabbithfish from the Indian Ocean. Copeia, 1 9 7 9 ( 3 ) : 390-393.



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