Global Institute for Water, Environment, and Health · 2016. 8. 15. · water consumption...
Transcript of Global Institute for Water, Environment, and Health · 2016. 8. 15. · water consumption...
Global Institute for Water, Environment, and Health
MANAGING THE WATER-FOOD NEXUS: The importance of the integration of different forms of knowledge and
expertise
08.2014 Alice Tomaselli
GIWEH10,RueChantepoulet1201GenèveE-mail:[email protected]él:0227337511
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ACRONYMS 3
INTRODUCTION 4
THE FOOD AND WATER NEXUS 6
The Water System 6
The Food System 7
The Nexus 9
The Dilemma 10
GLOBAL DYNAMICS 12
Global Trade 12
Demographic trends and urbanization 15
Climate Change 18
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LOCAL LEVEL 22
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENT KNOWLEDGES 28
Multidisciplinary 28
Exchanging knowledge 29
Given farmers the right information 31
CONCLUSIONS 37
REFERENCES 41 !!
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LIST%OF%ACRONYMS%%
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
UNDP United Nations Development Program
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INTRODUCTION%%The idea of a nexus approach comes from the belief that water, food and energy are tree
extremely interconnected systems. What happen in one dimension can influence the
conditions of one or both of the other two systems.
Many international organizations are starting to recognize the importance of a nexus
approach. Looking at the “trend and development in the research landscape” it is possible
to see that between 2007 and 2011 both social science and natural science have taken into
account studies regarding the interconnection between food and water1.
But the interconnection between water and food dates back to the birth of agriculture itself.
Land and water are in fact fundamental prerequisites for agriculture production. The 70% of
water consumption attributable to agricultural activities makes farmers “the main custodians
of the world's freshwater”.2 According to FAO3 food demand will increase 50% by 2030,
requiring even more water which consumption will have to be intensified 4 . Besides,
regarding food and energy we have to notice that because of modern technology and the
industrialization process many relations have increased and more energy intervention is
required for agricultural activities and food production5.
In addition, some dynamics are going on making the stress on water resources even more
intense and difficult to manage. Besides, there is a new variable which one cannot rely on:
the climate. Its rapid change makes the relations among the systems even more complex
and unpredictable6.
Given the heterogeneity of the problem new multidisciplinary and multi-level approaches
are needed. Both academia7 experts and international organizations call for the importance
of the empowerment of the network between local communities and actors at the macro-
level. An exchange of knowledge and expertise between the formers and the latters can !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1!SIWI!(2012),!The!Water!and!Food!Nexus:!Trends!and!Development!of!the!Research!Landscape.!SIWI,!Stockholm!2!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholm.!(p.6)!3!Bruinsma,! J.! (2003)!World!Agriculture:! Towards! 2015/2030!An! FAO!Perspective,! Earthscan!Publications! Ltd,!London!4!International!Food!Policy!Research!Institute,!http://www.ifpri.org/!5!Hanlon!P.,!Madel!R.,!OlsonXSawyer!K.,!Rabin!K.,!Rose!J.!(2013).!Food,!Water!and!Energy:!Know!the!Nexus,!GRACE,!New!York!6!Bakker!K.!(2012).!Water!Security:!Research!Challenges!and!Opportunities,!Vol.!337,!Science!7 !Wilsdon! J.! (2014)! Navigating! the! nexus! of! food,! energy,! water! and! the! environment,!http://www.theguardian.com/science/politicalXscience/2014/jun/09/scienceXpolicy!
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represent a productive option for the management of the water-food nexus given the
climate change situation. Local farmers from difficult areas have developed and
implemented extensive adaptation strategies that have enabled them to reduce vulnerability
to climate variability over the years. Without the incorporation of local knowledge, some
authors contend that environmental science and planning remain limited.
At the same time, it is clear that the role of modern science and expertise cannot be denied
and underestimated. The positive outcomes of an integration between the two different
knowledge are promising and it is essential for farmers to have access to the right
information at the right time and in the right form.
Coping with climate variability and managing the water-food nexus thanks to local
knowledge and modern science has much potential but does not lack commitment and
caution.
In the following pages, presented first will be an introduction regarding the relations that
connect food and water. But in order to address the challenge that the nexus represents it
is fundamental to know the context and the ongoing processes that are effecting it.
Therefore, global trade, urbanization, consumption patterns and climate change trends will
follow. After an explanation of the importance of a multidisciplinary approach, the essay will
then highlight the reasons why the local level can represent a promising starting point for
the action. In the end the importance -but also the difficulties- of the integration of different
types of knowledge will be described. In a situation where climate change is effecting
especially those communities with an already delicate conditions, one of the aim of this
report is to show that trying to interconnect local knowledge and scientific expertise can
give useful hints also to address the food and water nexus.
In order to do that proceedings from the most recent conferences have been analyzed,
together with UN documents, academic articles and international newspapers. In addition,
some interviews have been held in order to obtain a testimony from experts who are
working inside international organizations and agencies, and on the field.
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THE%FOOD%AND%WATER%NEXUS%%
The%Water%System%%
When talking about the food dimension, many activities, resources and people are involved
in the path that brings the food “from the farm to the table”8. Regarding water, fundamental
to fulfill human needs is the possibility to move it within and between watersheds in order to
assure agricultural, municipal, commercial, industrial and energetic requests.
Using a global vision it is possible to say that being water a renewable resource, its
presence should be generally enough to answer to the growing demand to feed the
expanding population. But at the same time, it is not well distributed around the world and
some regions are facing a temporary or permanent outstrips in the availability of it9.
BOX%1% “Water demand and availability is multifaceted”10
Green%Water%%The precipitation on land that does not run off or recharge the groundwater but is stored in
the soil is identified as green water. It is consumed thanks to its evaporation or transpiration
through plants. When green water is the main type used it is possible to talk about rain-fed
agriculture.
Blue%Water%In this case it refers to the fresh surface and groundwater (freshwater lakes, rivers and
aquifers) which can be used for irrigation agriculture.
Physical%Scarcity%%In this case “the demand outstrips the land ability to provide the needed water”11. Arid
regions are a typical example of that situation. Moreover, there are some areas where the
scarcity has been created by human activities.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!8!Hanlon!P.,!Madel!R.,!OlsonXSawyer!K.,!Rabin!K.,!Rose!J.!(2013).!Food,!Water!and!Energy:!Know!the!Nexus,!GRACE,!New!York.!p.!7!9!Ibidem!10!Manning!L.,!The!impact!of!water!quality!and!availability!on!food!production,!British!Food!Journal!Vol.!110!No.!8,!2008!pp.!762X780.!p.!762!11!The!Water!Project,!http://thewaterproject.org/water_scarcity_2!
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Economic%Scarcity%%In this case the locally present water could be enough to meet human demand but because
of “human, institutional and financial capital”12 people have a limited access to the resource.
FIGURE%1!13!
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The%Food%System%%According to FAO food security can be identify in 4 dimensions related to the sphere of
availability, access, utilization and stability:
• the availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality, supplied through
domestic production or imports;
• ·access by individuals to adequate resources (entitlements) for acquiring appropriate
foods for a nutritious diet;
• utilization of food through adequate diet, clean water, sanitation, and health care to
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!12!FAO,!http://www.fao.org/nr/water/art/2007/scarcity.html!13!Figure!from:!http://www.vestaldesign.com/blog/2009/09/waterXpoliticsXjustXhowXimportantXisXh2o/!
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reach a state of nutritional well-being where all physiological needs are met;
• stability, because to be food secure, a population, household or individual must have
access to adequate food at all times.14
The general picture shows that about 1/8 of the 7 billion population has food insecurity
because it does not meet one or more or FAO's dimensions of food security. Moreover,
there are enormous geographic differences with almost all countries in the most extreme
alarming condition situated in sub-Saharan Africa or South Asia15.
Looking at the amount of food productivity we can see how it has intensively increased in
the past years also thanks to the Green Revolution. "However, these improvements in
growth and the side-effects of that growth have been very unevenly distributed."16. In some
cases the surface of cultivated land has been amplified (for example, this is what has been
done in tropical areas with a consequences on forests); in other cases the path has been to
intensify the production of already available land but with the more intensive utilization of
water, fertilizers and energy.
A sustainable intensification of the food production is required in order to answer the
increasing demand for food that the world will have to face (while the population will
continue to increase).17
According to a Science article18 there are some limitations which prevent from a fully
acknowledge of the current state of food insecurity around the world. First of all the authors
argue that the method used to quantify unnourished people is not capable to evidence short
term changes, which are probably the most related to climate change dynamics. Another
important limitation is the fact that what is measured is the amount of calories consumption.
Nobody want of course to deny their role but as they show the fact that vitamins are not
taken into account can leave behind an underestimation of other difficulties related to bad
nutrition like physical and mental impediments caused by an unbalance of vitamins. This is
a good example regarding the fact that food security is a broad aspect and studying it, and
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!14!FAO!(2006),!Food!Security,!Policy!Brief,!Issue!2.!ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/ESA/policybriefs/pb_02.pdf!15!FAO,! (2013)! The! State! of! Food! Insecurity! in! the! World,! The! Multiple! Dimensions! of! Food! Security,! Rome!http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3434e/i3434e00.htm!16!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!p.17!17!Wheeler!T.,!von!Braun!J.!(2013),!Climate!Change!Impacts!on!Global!Food!Security,!Science&341,!508!18!Ibid.!
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therefore taking action regarding it, is not devoid of challenges19.
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The%Nexus%%But what are the relations that connect water and food?
If one wants to give a basic scientific explanation regarding the relation between agriculture
and water we can notice how "Food is produced through the photosynthesis process by
which plants manufacture carbohydrates. Water constitutes one of the two required raw
materials - carbon dioxide being the other"20. Therefore, in order to continue this process
plants need to have access to the absorption of enough water. Usually the water for the
photosynthesis comes from the green water resource. But, when there is not enough green
water to guarantee a smooth process, blue water is added by irrigation21. But while "green
water is a local resource that is available to the farmer"22 blue water is contended also
among other types of activities such as industry, energy, and drinking water supply. In the
future, given the current trend in population growth, the tensions towards blue water will
increase, creating a dilemma for its allocation especially in those regions where rainfall are
scarce.
Water is one of the main inputs for food but at the same time there is also an influence
created by food production on water. Land degradation, modification of run-off and
consequences on groundwater recharge and water quality are some examples together
with other impacts on the operation of the ecosystem services23.
As a general indication one can say that on average, in order to produce one calorie of food
energy, one liter of water is required24. Of course, the productivity of water varies a lot
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!19!Moreover,! another! methodological! critic! regarding! the! nature! of! the! data! is! made:! they! underline! that!conclusions!come!from!aggregate!data,!which!can!prevent!a!better!understanding!of!the!smallholder!level!and!the!climate!change!effects!at!local!level.(see!Ibid.)!20!Jägerskog,!A.,! Jønch!Clausen,!T.! (eds.),! (2012).! Feeding! a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges! and!Opportunities! for! a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.1!21!See!BOX!1!22!Jägerskog,!A.,! Jønch!Clausen,!T.! (eds.),! (2012).! Feeding! a!Thirsty!World! –!Challenges! and!Opportunities! for! a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm,!p.13!23!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!24!Ibid.!
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around the globe depending on the different types of crops, cropping systems, the
agricultural methods and the climates25.
The%Dilemma%%
Given the described situation, a dilemma arises. Trying to assure water availability can
compromise the attempt to gain food security and vice versa. Given the strong interrelation
between the two elements the attempts to improve one of them could threaten the other.
On one side in fact, environmental concerns regarding water are important but cannot loom
food security. On the other side, despite being a food secure world a priority, it cannot be
achieve no matter what the ecological impacts arise. The global community is starting to
agree on the fact that technological solutions alone are not enough. A broader approach is
needed and is required to take into account issues such as mismanagement, inappropriate
polices and weak governance 26 . Any strategy should consider administrative, social,
economic and political structures that enable communities to have a sustainable and
equitable growth. Before, the main concern of water polices was to find more water to use,
while now there is the awareness that it is more promising to improve the yield of water
(“more crop per drop” is the common expression used). The fact that water saving can be
improved by increasing irrigation efficiency is quite obvious. But then the idea should be to
allow the water saving procedure to not become a process being an end in itself, but to be a
new starting point for other improvements. It is “crucial that policy makers provide clear
guidance on how to beneficially use the water saved”27.
BOX%2
AREA%OF%ACTION%%It is necessary to keep in mind that since all the situations are specific not only because of
natural aspects such as territorial characteristics and climate but also because of
production systems, social capital and governance structures. For these reasons it is
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!25!Ibid.!26!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.12!27!Ibid.!p.6!
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difficult to identify a single solution for all the problems. We cannot expect to find panacea
or a single model applicable and immediately transferable to any situation. However, it is
possible to identify some broad areas where the solutions should come from. It will then be
the duty of actors to choose what options are more suitable for the specific contests.
Those areas are:28
-Increasing resource productivity
-using waste as a resource in multi-use systems
-stimulating development through economic incentives
-governance, institutions and policy
-benefiting from productive ecosystems
-integrated poverty alleviation and green growth
-capacity building and awareness raising
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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!28!The!suggested!areas!are!from:!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!p.36!
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GLOBAL%DYNAMICS%%
Global%Trade%%
In order to explain some dynamics related to food availability and water scarcity great hints
come from the phenomena of globalization. As it is obvious, pros and cons are embedded
in the process. Different countries can use global trade to improve their situation but also
need to take action in order to do not suffer from its negative outcomes.
Development can gain many potential benefits from international trade. More
interconnected markets, movement of investments, easier access to technology for
innovations and a more efficiency usage of resources are just some examples.
Regarding food availability, an intensive global exchange can be a potential solution to
reduce local scarcity. Lacks can be compensated by the use of imported food from more
agriculture productive areas29. This is, for example, the case of the MENA region30, which is
strongly depended on food import. Food import which also means virtual water import. This
concept regards the existence of a hidden flow of water behind each commodities; so the
movement of food embeds the movement of an important amount of water. In order to
improve the situation of food availability around the world it is not fundamental that all areas
increase their production. Quite the opposite, also in the respect of the nexus approach,
some areas should re-dimension their production and rethink land and water allocation31. It
is counter-productive to consider self-sufficiency as the only possible answer32.
When agriculture self-sufficiency cannot be achieved, importing food is actually more
sustainable than intensive over exploitation of already scarce local resources. The aim is to
move food from areas with availability of water and import it where there is water scarcity33.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!29!“the!traded!percentage!of!food!produced!has!grown!globally!from!about!10%!in!1970!to!15%!in!2000”!in!Hoff,!H.! (2011).!Understanding! the!Nexus.!Background!Paper! for! the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!p.8!30 World! Bank,! (2008),! Dealing! with! water! scarcity! in! the! MENA! Region,!http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21872903~menuPK:247603~pagePK:2865106~piPK:2865128~theSitePK:256299,00.html!!31!Garnett!T.!et!alt.!(2013),!Suistainable!Intensification!in!Agriculture:!Premises!and!Policies,!Science,!Vol.!341!pp.!33X34!32!There!is!the!risk!to!create!a!“water!bubble”!where!“food!production!is!inflated!through!the!unsustainable!use!of!water! and! land”! (from! da! Brown,! L.R.! (2003),! Emerging! Water! Shortages:! A! Food! Bubble! Economy,! Plan! B:!Rescuing!a!Planet!Under!Stress!and!a!Civilization!in!Trouble,!Earth!Policy!Institute!)!33!Jägerskog,!A.,! Jønch!Clausen,!T.! (eds.),! (2012).! Feeding! a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges! and!Opportunities! for! a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!
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But, at the same time, this intensive level of trade and financial interconnections can also
externalize unwanted effects. When everything is shared, also disturbances and shocks
can spread quite fast (e.g. food price shocks).
Moreover it is important to remember that the potential of mitigating local scarcity using
international trade can hide unequal dynamics. Sometimes, in fact, also resources
extraction and waste products are externalized. This means that bad practices or unwanted
products are exported in other regions, making the more environmental friendly attitude
only an appearance. “Therefore apparently positive bends in national environmental
‘Kuznets curves’ (i.e. as a country grows wealthier it reduces its resource use intensity) may
in fact only reflect the externalization to other regions”34
Regarding the opportunity to acquire products on the global market, this is not limited to the
exchange of final goods. Many developing countries in fact have started to delocalize and
to acquire factors of production outside their national boundaries. China, India and some
Arab countries have been acquiring agricultural land abroad in order to satisfy their
increasing food demand35. This puts in even a more difficult situation those areas where
people are already starving and where they will see their scarce resources taken away.
This process causes an important socio/economics impact on local people's livelihoods,
making even more difficult to gain access to land, water and food.
Moreover, this also means that areas with water and land are controlled by a power which
is located far away from the resources. This situation can prevent the traditional trade
dynamics and principles to take place. Some authors underline how these phenomena can
have both a promising and damaging effect. In the former case it could give the possibility
to some “stagnant” areas to be destination of investments, but at the same time, the project
to reduce food insecurity might be slowed down36. Land and water grabbing, as this
phenomena is identified, call the attention for an improvement of the capacity of institutions
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!34!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!p8!35!“Foreign! direct! investment! (FDI)! has! become! a! major! driver! of! change! in! many! developing! countries.! For!example,!more! than!200!million!hectares,!or!between!2!and!20%!of!agricultural! land! in! subXSaharan!countries,!have!been!sold!or!leased!over!the!past!few!years,!or!are!currently!being!negotiated!over!to!help!meet!the!rapidly!growing!demand!for!food,!feed!and!other!bioXresources!in!particular!from!China,!India!and!some!Arab!countries”!from!Ibid.!pp.8X9!36!Jägerskog,! A.,! Jønch! Clausen,! T.(eds.),! (2012).! Feeding! a! Thirsty!World! –! Challenges! and!Opportunities! for! a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!
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to deal with these risks37. !
Another issue related to the global transnational dimensions of water resources concerns
the fact that very often river basins are shared among different national authorities. The
challenge here is to assure that the management of scarce water availability can procure
shared benefits for all the parties involved.
Food trade has all the potentials to play an important role in order to contribute to a better
sharing of global resources. It is important to increase trade relations in agricultural
commodities in order to give the possibilities to all farmers to be part of the big systems, but
at the same time this involvement needs to be shaped to work properly. Smallholders in fact
have not enough access to markets and the bargaining power they have needs to be
empowered. Modern information technologies and government regulations are some
examples of how smallholder’s involvement could happen38. Another issue that arise when
talking about that is the matter regarding the increase and volatility of the world market
prices of food. Besides, it is interesting to notice that this dynamic can effect urban and rural
poor in different ways.
In the end it is possible to say that globalization processes do have the capacity to improve
technological innovation sharing, to intensify trades and foreign direct investments and to
assure resources in the areas where they are lacking, see virtual water flow as an example.
However to be externalized have not only the potential benefits but also many risks. In fact
all the regions which take part to the game are exposed to shocks and failures. “The main
challenge under these constraints will be to reconcile long-term and global objectives (e.g.
climate protection, ecosystem stewardship and equity goals) not only with immediate
economic benefits, but also with the need to secure local livelihoods and the non-negotiable
human rights to water and food understanding the nexus.39”
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!37!Some! examples! are! “secure! property! rights;! transparency! and! accountability! of! contracts;! participation!through! free,! prior! and! informed! consent;! and! effective! antiXcorruption! measures.”! From! Hoff,! H.! (2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!p.9!38!N.!V.!Fedoroff!et!al.!(2010);!Radically!Rethinking!Agriculture!for!the!21st!Century,!Science&327,!833X834!39!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!p.4!
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Demographic%Trends%and%Urbanization%%
The urbanization process is continuing without slackening40. And while in theory services
should be more easily accessible and more efficiently available in the cities, the reality is
that 1 billion of the population who lives in urban areas are condemned to difficult
conditions41 “There are currently 1 billion slum dwellers (projected to increase to 2 billion by
2030) who are especially food insecure and disconnected from (or dependent on highly
over-priced) government water and energy services”42. Besides, the density of population in
the cities is stronger compared to the rural areas43.
Moreover, this contests are expression of a specific life style where big space is given to
habits with an intensive resource consumption impact and high production of waste.
In addition, there is also a positive trend for the general wellbeing, which is the fact that the
middle class is getting bigger, allowing a big part of the population to have access to
specific consumption patterns. But those behaviors, despite having been desired for long
time, are not bearer of environmental friendly attitudes. Related with the urbanization
process it is possible to look at the case of China, where people are moving to cities and
where “The challenge for agriculture and the environment is that this new middle class is
demanding what middle class residents the world over have always demanded: more meat
and dairy.”44
Many experts have underlined the implications of an intensive consumption of meat also in
relation with its impact on water resources45.
Moreover it is important to remember that urban and rural areas are not two separated
dimensions, in fact they influence each other contemporarily. This means that bad
agricultural practices implemented in rural areas can have problematic effects on the cities, !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!40!“Continuing!urbanization,! often!driven!by!deteriorating! rural! living! conditions! and! a! quest! for! a! ‘better! life’,!means! that! city! dwellers! now! account! for! 50%! of! the! total! global! population.!With! about! 800,000! new! urban!residents!every!week,!that!proportions!projected!to!reach!70%!by!2050”!from!Ibid.!p.7!41!According!to!Sean!Fox!of!the!London!School!of!Economics,!“Over!60%!of!SubXSaharan!Africa’s!urban!population!lives!in!slum!conditions;!the!highest!level!of!‘slum!incidence’!of!any!major!world!region.”!Fox!S.(2013)The!Political!Economy!of!Slums:!Theory!and!Evidence! from!Sub!Saharan!Africa,!No.13X146!London!School!of!Economics!and!Political!Science,!London!42!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!43!Cities!account!for!about!75%of!all!greenhouse!gas!emissions!from!Ibid.!44!Orts!E.,!Spigonardo!J.!(2013)!The!Nexus!of!Food,!Energy!and!Water,!Wharton!School,!University!of!Pennsylvania,!USA!p.!12!45!See!BOX!3!
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especially regarding water quality. Inside this scenario, an interesting hint for the nexus
approach comes from the opportunity to create integrated planning to manage the
infrastructure for water, wastewater and energy. Since cities are not isolated from their
hinterland and rural areas around them, they should also mediate regarding offering
markets for agricultural products, recycling waste products, and endorse nexus approach in
the peri/urban areas in terms of agriculture and landscaping46.
Virtual water is a protagonist also in this case if we consider that most of the products used
from urban areas come from areas extremely far away creating a disconnection between
the source of the resources and the place where they are consumed. This also involves the
matter of transportation needed to move all these goods.
At the same time, cities represent many prospective. Using the economies of scale they
can offer interesting ideas for a sustainable development using the city as the center for
economic and knowledge47. Many potentials can come from cities in order to address the
water and food nexus. Of course the complexity of the relations can be intimidating, but
since it might represent a great basin where to draw possible solutions for a good planning
and management it is definitely worth to be taken into account48.
BOX%3
FOOD%WASTE%AND%CONSUMPTION%PATTERNS%According to some authors, the global food production is already meeting the calories
demand necessary to assure a fair nutrition for everybody. But despite this achievement,
food security is still a big issue.
Related to that, the problem of food waste deserve some comments.
In the US for example the amount of food squandered represent between one-quarter to
one-half of the more than 590 billion pound of food produced each year.49.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!46!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!47!“because!they!are!economic!and!knowledge!centers,!and!have!lower!perXcapita!infrastructure!costs!and!more!localized!transportation!needs!compared!to!rural!areas”.!From!Ibidem!p.7!48!Jägerskog,!A.,! Jønch!Clausen,!T.! (eds.),! (2012).! Feeding! a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges! and!Opportunities! for! a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.!36!49 Bloom!J.!(2011)!Americans!Waste!Enough!Food!to!Fill!a!90,000Xseat!Football!Stadium!Every!DayXWhat!Can!We!Do!About!It?!Available!at!http://www.alternet.org/story/152429/americans_waste_enough_food_to_fill_a_90%2C000Xseat_football_stadium_every_day_XX_what_can_we_do_about_it!
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What is alarming is that when wasting food also all the resources, water included, used to
produce it get wasted.
The moments when most of the food goes to garbage is different between developed and
developing countries.
Regarding the wastage that occur at the consumer side, researches shows that the reasons
need to be found in "food spoilage, overcooking, plate waste and over-purchasing" and also
in the misinterpretation over the "use-by" and "best-by" dates.50
But an important amount of food waste also occurs on the production side, where
sometimes crops remain harvested or unsold because they do not meet the "appearance
requirement" of supermarkets and consumers.
“Given the water- and energy-intensive nature of growing, processing, packaging,
warehousing, transporting and preparing food, it follows that wasted food means wasted
water, energy and agricultural resources”51. In a period where all three are under pressure it
is not wise to just waste it.
In order to reduce losses there are of course some costs to shoulder (e.g. investments in
improved storage and transport). But the positive gains can make it worth. It is in fact good
not only for an environmental perspective “Solutions to reduce losses and waste are
relevant from a corporate perspective, from a natural resources use perspective and for
society at large.”52
Moreover, specific consumption patterns of the middle class have been spreading. The diet
is an important example. Meat and dairy products are requested from always a bigger size
of population. While on one side this is the signal of the improving situation of many people,
at the same time it is not promising for the environment. An important amount of resources
are required for the production of these items. The livestock business is among the most
damaging sectors to the earth’s increasingly scarce water resources, contributing among
other things to water pollution, euthropication and the degeneration of coral reefs. The
major polluting agents are animal wastes, antibiotics and hormones, chemicals from
tanneries, fertilizers and the pesticides used to spray feed crops. Widespread overgrazing !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!50!Hanlon!P.,!Madel!R.,!OlsonXSawyer!K.,!Rabin!K.,!Rose!J.!(2013).!Food,!Water!and!Energy:!Know!the!Nexus,!GRACE,!New!York!p!13!51 Ibid.!p.13!!52!Jägerskog,!A.,!Jønch!Clausen,!T.!(eds.),!(2012).!Feeding!a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges!and!Opportunities!for!a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.36!
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disturbs water cycles, reducing replenishment of above and below ground water resources.
Significant amounts of water are withdrawn for the production of feed.53. But generalizations
should be avoided. In some situations in fact, where livestock are fed with natural grass
(which means using just the present blue water) does not represent a problem. Attention
should instead be paid to intensive activities54.
Climate%Change%%
The path toward a world without hunger is constantly put at risk by climate change. The
yield of crop productivity bears the dynamics of climate and this can have important effects
on food availability. Short-term instability in supply caused by climate unpredictability can
threat the entire food systems. Despite the impossibility to connect every single impact to
the specific climate change occurred55, the situation is expected to be even more affected
on the local scale, both with direct and indirect effects. The areas which are already facing
difficulties such as malnutrition will in fact meet an exacerbation of the food insecurity level.
Water accessibility is definitely an element able to impair food availability leading to
collateral effects on household health quality.
The impact fostered by climate change will involve both sides of the food chain on the
supply and on the demand prospective. Global and local impacts will occur, with the latter
effecting already very vulnerable small farmers who have to rely on their local private
production.
The fact that the global temperature is been raising during years cannot be doubt. The
reason of this change can be attribute both to human activities and natural courses. Carbon
dioxide and methane, commonly known as greenhouse gases, have been emitted more
intensely in the last years56. Scientific experts have recognize the existence of a link
between the greenhouse increase and global warming. Besides, also the change in land-
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!53!FAO,!(2006)!Livestock!a!major!threat!to!environment.!Remedies!urgently!needed!available!at!http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/News/2006/1000448/index.html!54!Wooley!J.!(2014),!Personal!Interview!55!Field!C.,2014!Personal!speech!at!the!Presentation!of!the!WGII!&!III!contributions!to!the!AR5!Report,!Geneva!56!Carbon!dioxide!(CO2)!levels!in!the!atmosphere!have!increased!from!about!284!ppm!in!1832!to!397!ppm!in!2013!from!Wheeler!T.,!von!Braun!J.!(2013),!Climate!Change!Impacts!on!Global!Food!Security,!Science&341,!508X513p.4!
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use, together with the more consistent burning of fossil fuels, has conducted to a rise of the
temperatures.
Despite the relation between human activities and global warming is by now confirmed, not
all the effects and dynamics can be predicted for sure. While it is estimated that the
summer Asian monsoon rainfall may increase, and that parts of North and southern Africa57
could become drier, the scientific community is not yet able to produce satisfactory model to
represent the global hydrology cycle in order to predict how rainfall patterns will change. On
the other side it is largamente accepted the fact that the rise of the sea-level will exacerbate
the risk of flood in coastal regions where agricultural lands will be the more damage.
Moreover, it is important to remember that the warming and its effects will not be evenly
spread across the world. In fact, some areas like the ones closer to oceans, the poles, and
arid regions will be more effected by these changing forces. Tropical lands can meet the
worst outcomes while areas at higher latitudes will be less effected. This means that the
areas that are already suffering for food instability will be the most vulnerable to climate
change.
When talking about food security is therefore obvious that the role that climate change
could play cannot be forget, especially because agriculture is part of the problem/solution
and is extremely sensitive to climate variability. Crop production is estimated to be effected
by greenhouse gases and also livestock health can be damage from these emissions. !
Also in this case the intensity of the effects will change from one area to another, depending
also on the degree of warming increasing and on the changing in rainfall patterns.
In the end, we can see that climate change is expected to have a variety of consequences
on all of the four dimensions of food security recognized by the FAO. These effects could
be both direct and indirect, and the latter will be even more difficult to identify, and
therefore, as it happens for all the indirect consequences of climate change, it will be even
more difficult to find a solution. Thanks to the improvement of the knowledge regarding the
effects of climate change during the last 20 years scientist have a better understanding of
the effects of climate change on crop plant physiology and can do more simulation in order
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!57!“A! recent! systematic! review!of! changes! in! the! yields! of! the!major! crops! grown!across!Africa! and! South!Asia!under!climate!change!found!that!average!crop!yields!may!decline!across!both!regions!by!8%!by!the!2050s!(28).!Across!Africa,!yields!are!predicted!to!change!by!–17%!(wheat),!–5%!(maize),!–15%!(sorghum),!and!–10%!(millet)!and,!across!South!Asia,!by!–16%!(maize)!and!–11%!(sorghum)!under!climate!change.”from!Ibid.!p.511!
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to make predictions.58
There is the need to “address food security in its broadest sense and to [integrate it] into the
development of agriculture worldwide. Building agricultural resilience, or climate-smart
agriculture,”59 through improvements in technology and management systems is a key part
of this, but will not be sufficient on its own to achieve global food security. The whole food
system needs to adjust to climate change, with strong attention also to trade, stocks, and to
nutrition and social policy options.
Climate adaptation measures, such as intensified irrigation or additional water desalination,
are often energy intensive. Thus climate policies can impact on water, energy and food
security, and adaptation action can in fact be maladaptive if not well aligned in a nexus
approach and implemented by appropriately interlinked institutions.60
The worst consequences are expected to happen in areas where the conditions are already
uncertain. This will put the population who is already vulnerable in an even more difficult
situation where the capacity to develop resilient techniques will be reduce making them
even more vulnerable. Food inequality will also increase. As was previously said, climate
change is affecting different areas with different intensity which will create disparity in how
food availability is present around different regions, and between rural and urban
communities.61
Making a note regarding the macroeconomic aspect of climate change impact on food
security it is possible to say that future price trends and short-term variability or prices can
be put at risk because of climate unpredictability. Also in this case poor people will be the
more sensitive to the high and volatile food prices62.
When trying to connect food security, water availability and climate change there are some
dynamics that appear as obvious, while others, more indirect, need a more careful analysis.
Some example are the effects on the availability and quality of water. Furthermore, flooding
and drought have not only direct effects on food issues (crop damage) .In fact, because of
bad hygienic conditions, many diseases could spread and make difficult for people to
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!58!Ibidem!59!Ibidem!p.513!60!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!61!Wheeler!T.,!von!Braun!J.!(2013),!Climate!Change!Impacts!on!Global!Food!Security,!Science&341,!508X513!62!Ibid.!
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integrate all the nutritional substances.
It is therefore required to achieve a holistic understand of the relation of climate change and
food security in order to make sure that also indirect effects are taken into account. !
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THE%IMPORTANCE%OF%THE%LOCAL%LEVEL%%Many organizations, agencies and researchers underline the importance to observe
agricultural production and water management using a local lens. “Food scarcity manifest
itself locally, so efforts to alleviate it must be tailored to the local circumstances. To do
otherwise is akin to doctoring a sick person on the basis of global health statistics”63. With
this nice expression the authors of Science want to put the focus on the fact that even if
food scarcity and climate change are definitely a global phenomenon, their manifestations
are not uniformly spread across the world and the ways they took place vary in terms of
nature intensity and calamity.
For this reason it is overall accepted that the right level to act in order to reduce the
dysfunctions of the food-water nexus is the local one. The idea is to recognize each
specification of the general problem. An example is soil erosion which cannot be described
as the most serious problem at a global level but in some specific situation it represents the
main threat to the agriculture production of some communities.
The household should receive more recognition as a fundamental center for many
decisions regarding numerous elements such as local natural resources. For this reason in
order to assure the improvement of food security the adoption of “a local, contemporary
lens”64 is fundamental.
At the same time, it is obvious that households cannot be understood as isolated and when
taking them into consideration a further contextualization is required. Local level should be
seen as a starting point that need then to be upscale and interconnected both parallel with
other local bodies and vertically with national, regional and global institutions. “Threats to
environmental security very often come allied to institutional failure. Thus, when thinking
about environmental security, particular attention needs to be given to the institutions in
which individuals, households, firms, and communities go about their business”65. !!
“Small is beautiful66” say the paper for the preparation for the Stockholm International Water
Week regarding Water and Food Nexus. It calls the attention on the importance of small
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!63!Ibid.!64!Daily!G.,!et!alt.!(1998)!Food!Production,!Population!Growth,!and!the!Environment,!Vol.!281!no.!5381!pp.!1291X1292,!Science!65!Ibid.!66!Jägerskog,!A.,!Jønch!Clausen,!T.!(eds.),!(2012).!Feeding!a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges!and!Opportunities!for!a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.20!
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farmers’ involvement in agriculture water management. Talking for example about the
irrigation sector very often farmers’ contribution used to be underestimated. But now some
organizations started to recognize that small farmers have the willingness to invest and
ameliorate the irrigation systems of their farms. Most of the irrigated area in South Asia, for
instance, depends on privately owned and managed wells.67 At the light of that it is
important to take action and work for the promotion of irrigation solutions and technologies
that can be suitable for smallholders. But some of the difficulties here are for instance
related to the market inefficiencies which would require an intervention from the state in
order to regulate the issue. Besides, extremely important in this sense is the transfer of
knowledge and the fact that all farmers, men and women 68 should have access to
information regarding technics and practices69.
BOX%4
THE%IMPORTANCE%OF%WOMEN%The expression "gender gap" refers to the difference existing between man and women in
terms of access to productive resources. Despite the fact that women give an important
contribution to agriculture production their work is often underestimated. According to
FAO70 women's involvement should be better valued because full of potentials. Data
changes depending on the area and on the types of crops, but with a 43% of the
agricultural labor force represented by women, the promises of their support should not be
in question.
"Female farmers produce less than male farmers, but not because they are less-efficient
farmers: extensive empirical evidence shows that the productivity gap between male and
female farmers is caused by differences in input use. If women had the same access to
productive resources as men, they could increase yields on their farms by 20–30 per
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!67!Ibidem!68!See!BOX!4!69!“Supporting! smallholder! agricultural! management! can! leverage! an! existing,! farmerXdriven! trend! largely!ignored! by! investors.! Farmers’! genuine! interest! is! demXonstrated! by! their! willingness! to! initiate! and! finance!irrigation! themselves.! Without! the! need! for! large! infraXstructure! (dams,! canals,! distribution! devices)! upfront!investment!costs!are!low.!Technologies!suitable!for!smallholders!are!available.!Compared!to!public!or!community!managed!schemes,!the!organisational!aspects!are!simple!and!profit!margins!are!high.”!From!Jägerskog,!A.,! Jønch!Clausen,!T.!(eds.),!(2012).!Feeding!a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges!and!Opportunities!for!a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.20!70!In!Jägerskog,!A.,!Jønch!Clausen,!T.!(eds.),!(2012).!Feeding!a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges!and!Opportunities!for!a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.26!
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cent"71 If the gender gap is closed, important benefits would be gained by the agricultural
sector and all the development processes of the society. More inclusion should be assured
to women in order to give them the space they deserve and to make sure that they can fully
exploit the potentials they have to contribute to rural development.
Issues regarding agriculture water management are also touched by the need to overcome
the gender gap. Women are in fact often not involved in decision-making process regarding
new agricultural water management approaches, land and resource allocation.
The fundamental role of women is also revealed in the management of domestic water
where women and girls have to spend a considerable amount of time fetching water. Taking
into account this fact, and investing on technology and closer water sources will lead to
many improvements. Women could in fact dedicate their time to other activities. It is
important to remember that long-term indirect benefits are included here. We can think for
instance to the education. For example, after the construction of water sources in some
rural areas of Morocco women and girls had to dedicate up to 90 per cent time less to fetch
water with a rise of school attendance of 20%72.
Some attempts in this direction have been done, by trying to insert the issue of gender gap
in the development agenda. Of course moving from theory to practice is not that easy and
more effort still needs to be done in order to achieve a full recognition of women’s role in
agriculture and water management.
Given all the relevant advantages that women could bring, a situation where they are still
less likely to own land than man, where they keep fewer livestock, where they have to deal
with a greater overall workload without having access to agricultural information and
financial services is just a wasted resources "Promoting gender equality is not only good for
women; it is also good for agricultural development and for poverty and hunger reduction"73
In doing that it is important though to be aware that an uncoordinated private irrigation
sector have potential negative effects. This is an area with many potentials and that should
not be left developing alone. Appropriate public interventions are required in order to gain
all the possible improvement stallholders' irrigation projects can give to food security and
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!71!Ibid.!p.27!72!Ibid.!73!Ibid.,!p.26!
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poverty diminishment.
In order to gain benefits from acting on that local level it is necessary to take into account
the limitation that these farmers have to overcome. In order to do so it is necessary to
consider some limits that small farmers need to face in order to do their activity. They have
in fact to deal with suboptimal conditions, where the access to resources is not granted.
Besides many losses tend to make the already instable situation even more difficult.
Moreover it is possible to say that some of the reasons also come from the fact that there is
a poor access to information regarding important element such as irrigation solutions,
seeds, market options and tools74.
Small farmers can be described as “water stewards”, since they are expression of a
“genuine interest” of starting and finance with their own resources irrigation project. The
idea is that since there is already a strong base of willingness to contribute, working
together with small farmers is worth it75. This means that also from an economic point of
view the initial costs could be contained while the expected profits could be high. Small
farmers would need to have better access to market and at the same time be properly
protected by specific policy with the aim to reduce poverty and assure a sustainable
development. Hydro resources cannot in fact be compromise in the name of an increase of
the agriculture production. Afterwards, the benefits regarding a good irrigation are obviously
fundamental in order to assure water waste and a sustainable achievement of food security.
Regarding the importance of a multilevel collaboration this should also include public and
private partnership. This can be doable both at national level where some countries cannot
afford intensive business projects, but also at a smaller levels. !
Looking at the smallholder level also allows to better understand climate change dynamics
and to capture the information regarding adaptation-capability. Some authors call for the
need of an adaptation that occurs at the local level, different from farm to farm in order to
develop better/adopted crop improvement programs76. !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!74!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholm!75!Ibid.!76!“GlobalXscale!climate!change!impacts!at!a!grid!scale!of!200!to!250!km!can!provide!useful!information!on!shifts!in!production!zones!and!perhaps!guide!the!focus!of!global!crop!improvement!programs!seeking!to!develop!betterXadapted!crop!varieties.!However,!much!of!the!adaptation!of!agricultural!practice!to!climate!change!will!be!driven!by! decisions! at! the! farm! and! farmXenterprise! scale.! These! decisions! need! much! finer! resolution! information”!Wheeler!T.,!von!Braun!J.!(2013),!Climate!Change!Impacts!on!Global!Food!Security,!Science!341,!508X513!p.511!
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But at the same time since climate change is not an isolated event and that many
complications cut different regions, using only a micro focus can prevent from a fully
understanding. A promising method could be an integrated approach, where micro and
macro are interchangeable lens used to better focus this complex phenomena. They are
therefore complementary approaches that need to be used together in order to understand
food security issues
Experts agree on the fact that the smallholder level should be the starting point for policy
making intervention. Intervention that should then be enlarged using a broader vision. An
interesting point also refer to what some authors have called the “human aspect” in relation
to food security and climate change adaptability. At the end of the day in fact, people are
the one who drives the system and who oriented their behavior according to their feeling in
relation to climate change77.
“In a rapidly globalizing world, good governance of the water and food security system –
securing the institutions, information and investments – call for improvements at all scales,
from the local through the national and regional to the global level.”78 !
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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!77!Wheeler!T.,!von!Braun!J.!(2013),!Climate!Change!Impacts!on!Global!Food!Security,!Science&341,!508X513!78 Jägerskog,!A.,! Jønch!Clausen,!T.! (eds.),! (2012).! Feeding!a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges!and!Opportunities! for! a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.12!
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BOX%5
GLOBAL%WATER%SOLIDARITY%The same idea regarding the importance of starting to act at the local level is shared also to
the UNDP and his project Global Water Solidarity.
But they also highlight the importance to adopt a holistic approach79. “Water cooperation
interventions must be part of a coordinated multi-actor, multilevel and multi-sector effort that
takes into account the environmental, social and economic dimensions of Sustainable
Human Development”80. The second step is in fact to upscale the practices and try to
interconnect the local reality with other levels. The interconnection should occur on a
parallel level with an exchange between territories but also on the vertical line with other
institutional levels.
In its activity of being a knowledge hub, the Global Water Solidarity initiative well puts the
accent on the important of promoting knowledge exchange in order to enhance the transfer
of expertise and competencies. Important in this sense is the “mapping of who can do what
and where”81The idea is to maintain efficient and avoid overlapping actions regarding water
issues without wasting resources.
“When information is interpreted, understood and applied, when it is acted upon and added
to previous knowledge new knowledge is created” 82 . And this new pondered and
constructed knowledge is fundamental for water management and food security.
Agricultural water management issues are extremely specific and a specific particularistic
solution is needed. This is also the view of UNDP which tries to give “concrete responses to
local needs” and the projects are “adapted to each and every territory's reality”83
Moreover, also the importance of peer/to peer knowledge exchange is recognized from
UNDP which sees how “pooling, reinforcing and transferring capacities and know how is
more contextualized and localized”84 when it is conducted between same levels actors,
institutions and agencies.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!79!Draganic!I.!(2014),!Personal!Interview!80!UNDP,!2013,!Practice!Guidelines;!Decentralized!cooperation,!Water!and!Sanitation!p.23!81!Draganic!I.,!2014,!Personal!Interview!82!UNDP,!2013,!Practice!Guidelines;!Decentralized!cooperation,!Water!and!Sanitation!p.46!83!Ibidem,!p.48!84!Ibidem,!p.!
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THE%IMPORTANCE%OF%THE%INTEGRATION%OF%DIFFERENT%KNOWLEDGES%%
MULTIDISCIPLINARY%%
In order to address the issues of the nexus a multidisciplinary approach is required. The
expertise should be built on a new understanding of the fact that “management of water
resources cannot be done by sole water professionals likewise management of land cannot
be done by sole land users” 85 in these direction different organizations from both
agricultural and water sector should cooperate and complement each other. An example of
that principle regards MENA regions where there is the importance to create a collaboration
between the ministry of water and the ministry of agriculture. Given the strong relations that
they have and the fact that the issues they are working on are extremely related an
autonomous action is not productive86 . It is fundamental to find the entry point to insert
nexus analysis into policy debates and to include nexus studies in the already existent
policies.
A push should also come from the academic environment. Different disciplinary approaches
should be encourage and social and natural science should try to mutually reinforce each
other87.Talking about a multidisciplinary nexus approach in this contest obviously means to
take into account also all the issues related to climate change and development. Food
security, climate adaptation, development, human health, they all influence each other,
which means that also solutions are to be found among all of them contemporaneously.
As common for many environmental policies, it is often difficult to take action based on
certain evaluations. Predicting, which are usually based on the knowledge we have on the
past, are not doable any more. The past in fact is no more a reliable elements to use to
foresee dynamics that are constantly and unpredictably changing because of climate
effects88.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!85!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.8!86!But! some!authors! recognize! that!also! in! the!MENA!region!awareness! regarding! the! importance!of! creating!a!“body!or!research!on!cross/sectoral!collaborations”!from!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper! for! the! Bonn! 2011! Conference:! The! Water,! Energy! and! Food! Security! Nexus.! Stockholm! Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!p.2!87!SIWI!(2012)!The!Water!and!Food!Nexus:!Trends!and!Development!of!the!Research!Landscape.!SIWI,!Stockholm!88!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.15!
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"Water plays key roles in agriculture, health, economic development, urbanization, energy
production, international affairs and the fulfilment of human rights"89. Water represent
therefore a great field were challenges and solutions can come from different areas and
where links should be created. Given the nature of the challenges of the scenario it is clear
that silos approaches and isolated ways of thinking are obsoleted ad completely inefficient.
EXCHANGING%KNOWLEDGE%%
“Some call it local knowledge, others indigenous knowledge, while many prefer traditional
knowledge. [But] whatever the terminology being used, it is understood that we are talking
about knowledge held by local people, outside the formal scientific domain.”90 The main
idea here is to find a common ground where scientific and local knowledge can find
solutions for climate-change adaptation. The main goal is to "supplement and enrich
scientific data"91 by integrating local knowledge.
But "drawing on traditional knowledge to supplement hard science is still largely uncharted
territory"92. Of course the actual integration of the two expertise does not come easily and
conflicts between the two need to find attention in order to be reconciled.
The differences between the two types of knowledge can in fact create problems. A
troublesome process could occur when trying to insert local knowledge into science93. Local
and scientific knowledge are two different world that do not know each other and trying to
merge them tighter can encounter barriers form different spheres (e.g. institutional, political,
social and cultural)94 .
Besides, it is not that easy therefore to identify if and how local knowledge can be
relevant.95
Especially for some particulary extreme areas local people can contribute to the collection
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!89!Ibidem,!p.8!90!Africa! Adapt,! Climate! Change! Symposium! (2011)! Roles! of! local! and! indigenous! knowledge! in! addressing!climate!change!available!at!http://www.africaXadapt.net/media/resources/558/Panel%208.pdf!p.1!91!Couzin!J.!(2007),!Opening!Doors!to!Native!Knowledge,!Science!Vol!315!pp.!1518X1519!92!Ibid.!93!"it! is!not!universal,! it! is!not! systemati,! its!not! free!of!biases”! from!Couzin! J.! (2007),!Opening!Doors! to!Native!Knowledge,!Science!Vol!315!pp.!1518X1519!,!p.1519!94!Bragdon!S.!(2014),!Personal!Interview!95!Raymond!M.!C.!et!alt.!(2010)!Integrating!local!and!scientific!knowledge!for!environmental!management,!Journal!of!Environmental!Mangement!Vol.91!pp.!1766X1777!
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of in-depth, up-close information by giving scientists information otherwise difficult to access
independently96. Moreover, looking at what kind of local practices have been developed can
help to understand which are the difficulties that people have to cope with.
Where it is appropriate97, the idea is to integrate indigenous knowledge into scientific data.
The benefit would be for the scientific field but also of course for the locals98 who would
have the opportunity to have the availability of a more useful scientific research.
Also water resource management should not be extraneous of the potential of collecting
information from indigenous people99. "Understanding and identifying cultural practices may
be an important first step in collaborative resource management between different cultural
groups to prevent conflict and lengthy resolution in court"100 101
Local knowledge even if often associated with something old and not up dated is at the
same time continuously shaped by global dynamics. Climate change, scarce resources like
water and fertile land, put farmers in the situation where they have to find remedies to cope
with the new changing environmental condition. Also in this field then, “an innovation and
adaptation process must take place to adjust the system to arising challenges.”102 !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!96!“I’m!looking!at!computer!screens!or!satellite!images,!but!I!don’t!have!the!time!to!wander!around!the!landscape!like!the!Sami!do,”!says!Terry!Callaghan,!who!runs!the!Abisko!Scientific!Research!Station!in!Sweden,!referring!to!the! native! population! that! herds! reindeer! in! three! Nordic! countries! and! Arctic! Russia.! From! Couzin! J.! (2007),!Opening!Doors!to!Native!Knowledge,!Science!Vol!315!pp!1519!97!“It!may!also!require!determining!the!type!of!knowledge!different!stakeholders!can!bring!to!the!integration!table!(e.g.!indigenous!or!scientific!perspectives),!as!well!as!the!type!of!content!they!have!to!offer!(e.g.!whether!they!have!particular!expertise,! such!as!ecological!or!economic! that! can!help! to! improve!understanding!of! the! interrelated!human! and! social! aspects! of! a! system! or! problem).”! From! Raymond!M.! C.! et! alt.! (2010)! Integrating! local! and!scientific!knowledge!for!environmental!management,!Journal!of!Environmental!Mangement!Vol.91!pp.!1766X1777!p.1769!98!"Understanding! and! identifying! cultural! practices! may! be! an! important! first! step! in! collaborative! resource!management!between!different!cultural!groups!to!prevent!conflict!and!lengthy!resolution!in!court."!from!Flangan!C.,! Laituri! M.! (2004)! Local! Cultural! Knowledge! and! Water! Resource! Management:! The! Wind! River! Indian!Reservation,!Environmental!Management!Vol.!33,!No.!2,!pp.!262X270!99!Chadwick,! M.,! J.! Soussan,! D.! Mallick,! and! S.! Alam,! 1998.! Understanding! indigenous! knowledge:! Its! role! and!potential!in!water!resources!management!in!Bangladesh.!Dhaka:!Bangladesh!Centre!for!Advanced!Studies.!100!Flangan! C.,! Laituri!M.! (2004)! Local! Cultural! Knowledge! and!Water! Resource!Management:! The!Wind!River!Indian!Reservation,!Environmental!Management!Vol.!33,!No.!2,!pp.!262X270!p.262!101!For!other!examples!see:!Drame!A.,!Kiema!A.!(2012)!How!to!fight!in!a!sustainable!way!against!adverse!effects!of!climate!change!in!West!Africa:!the!case!of!local!knowledge!practices,!ENDA,!Dakar,!Senegal!102 !FAO! (2004)! Understanding! the! Vulnerability! Contest!http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5631e/y5631e01.htm!
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GIVEN%FARMERS%THE%RIGHT%INFORMATION%%
Despite the fundamental relevance of local knowledge, in order to have a fully integration,
the sharing of expertise should also go on the other direction. It is in fact extremely
important to give local populations the possibility to have access to technical knowledge
regarding agriculture and water management. They should be put in the condition to adjust
the new knowledge with the needs of their specific contest.
In this scenario there are some dichotomies that can create conflicts such as the tension
between “modern and traditional approaches; […] large scale, capital intensive versus small
scale, labor intensive methods; [and] gains from water efficiency in one [area can lead] to
losses in another”103 The idea is to see this multicity of systems as an input and try to
integrate them and gain the best from all of them. A contact point needs to be found in
order to have virtuous outcomes.
It would be extremely useful for farmers to have access to information regarding
unexpected complications of climate change. Early warning systems of drought risks for
example would be a good tool to improve farmers’ reactions and planning to rainfalls, which
are always more variable104. Using scientific expertise to reach “Improvements in modelling
and data compilation and dissemination (could) provide timely guidance to farmers about
likely water situations at various time and geographical scales"105. It is important to create
an arena where stakeholder’s interaction can occur. The presence of informed stakeholders
is here very important. They need to have access to the knowledge regarding technology
development and innovation in order to exchange it among all the parts involved. !!
Now that it is accepted that the promise of the Green Revolution is not being maintained,
new research and knowledge regarding future potentials of agriculture should be shared
with farmers. In doing that the collaboration among farmers is fundamental. “Farmer-to-
farmer education is often more effective […] Famers are more comfortable accepting new
practices if they see that their peers have been successful.”106. It is really interesting the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!103!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.19!104!Jägerskog,!A.,!Jønch!Clausen,!T.!(eds.),!(2012).!Feeding!a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges!and!Opportunities!for!a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!105!Ibid.!p.10!106 Orts!E.,!Spigonardo!J.!(2013)!The!Nexus!of!Food,!Energy!and!Water,!Wharton!School,!Univeristy!of!Penssylvania,!USA!p.15!!!http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/specialXreport/theXnexusXofXfoodXenergyXandXwater/!
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project of an American software engineer, who thanks to his software he demonstrated that
“showing short, locally produced videos featuring local farmers is highly effective, especially
when followed up by facilitated group discussions”107. This is just an example of the
potential of using modern technology to build new knowledge. “This combination of
technology, science, education and focus on local farmers embodies the fundamentals of
an approach that has the potential to renew agriculture the world over and feed the planet’s
growing population”108 Alone, neither traditional methods nor the technologies of the green
revolution can answer to the problem. Given the current situation where food security mixed
with population growth and climate change is an enormous threat “new community-based,
ecology-oriented approaches that harness the power of science, local knowledge and new
technologies offer hope for a better future.”109
Participatory plant breeding (which is a good example of how two knowledge are putting
together110) is also fundamental in order to give voice to farmers and their preferences. “It
may be the only feasible route for crop breeding in remote regions, where a high level of
crop diversity is required within the same farm, or for minor crops that are neglected by
formal breeding programs”111
“Producing more staple crops alone does not increase food security. Diversification112 is
vital for farmers to be able to sell their produce at decent prices. It also offers the possibility !!
to use variable water resources more efficiently, contributing to stronger resilience to
climate change”113
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!107!According!to!The!New!York!Times!forty/one!percent!of!farmers!who!watched!one!of!the!videos!produced!have!adopted!at!least!one!new!practice!from!Ibidem!108!Ibid.,p.14!109!Ibid..!p.14!110!Susan!Bragdon,!2014,!Personal!Interview!111!Rosegrant!M.!W.,!Cline!A.!S.!(2003).!Global!Food!Security:!Challanges!and!Policies.!Science!Vol!302,!ppX!1917X1919!112!Herrero!calls!also!for!the!importance!of!a!synergy!between!cropping!and!livestock:!“Mixed!systems!enable!the!farmer!to!integrate!different!enterprises!on!the!farm;!in!such!systems,!livestock!provide!draft!power!to!cultivate!the!land!and!manure!to!fertilize!the!soil,!and!crop!residues!feed!livestock.!Moreover,! income!from!livestock!may!be! able! to! buffer! low! crop! yields! in! dry! years.! These! mixed! systems! may! be! used! intensively! close! to! urban!markets,! as! well! as! in! less! productive! areas!with! limited!market! access.! From!Herrero!M.! et! al.! (2010)! Smart!Investments!in!Sustainable!Food!Procution:!Revisiting!Mixed!CropXLivestock!Systems,!Science!327,!pp.!822X825!113!Jägerskog,!A.,! Jønch!Clausen,!T.! (eds.),! (2012).!Feeding!a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges!and!Opportunities! for!a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.10!
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The benefits will go not only to the farmers but to the environment as well. In fact actions
taking for adaptation will also turn into an improvement of diversity. It is this the case of
some area affected by drought were farmers are planting different crops in order to diversify
the risk.
Of course in order to make sure that small farmers improved their production in a
sustainable way some attentions need to be paid. Investments in infrastructures, policies,
research and information are required. But in doing so it is important to involve who are the
target of the innovation in order to make sure that what is searched is the answer for a real
need. According to CGIAR even cellphones can be helpful in that way114. They are in fact
increasing in many developing countries and could represent an innovative way to instantly
connect farmers to agricultural services, information in order to be more competitive on the
markets.115.
At the same time it is also important to monitor the interventions in order to improve
accountability. While it is obvious that an analysis of the final impacts is useful, it is also
important to consider the meta-analysis and to evaluate outcomes of ongoing project in
order to learn simultaneously. It is interesting to notice that also in this case modern
technology can be useful to involve the participants and assure a monitoring of the project. .
“More effective methods of stakeholders’ engagement can be done using recent technology
in collecting and sharing data”116. As just said, even less expected means such as text
messaging and crowd-sourcing can have a role in the democratization of data collection
process.
As an example of the importance to recognize local dynamics, Science call for the creation
of “foresight intuitions” able to monitor key local dynamics regarding food and agriculture in
order to have an informed base for local and global policy debate and actions. “Developing
the local capacity to collect and distribute information is integral to any sustainable
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!114!See!also:!Kalas!L!P.,!Finlat!A.,!(2009)!Planting!the!knowledge!seed!Adapting!to!climate!change!using!ICTs!115!“With! the! help! of! several! groups,! including! the! Bill! and!Melinda! Gates! Foundation,! small! farmers! are! now!using! their! cell!phones! to!discover! the!best! time! to!plant! their! seeds,! to! share!new! farming!methods!with!each!other!and!to!learn!the!best!market!in!which!to!sell!their!produce!Orts!E.,!Spigonardo!J.!(2013)!The!Nexus!of!Food,!Energy!and!Water,!Wharton!School,!Univeristy!of!Penssylvania,!USA!p.14!116!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.13!
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development program”117
BOX%5
THE%EXPERIENCE%OF%HELVETAS118%An inspiring example is what Helvatas has been doing in the Bolivian altiplano (2,500-4,000
meters above sea level). In this area the situation is fragile, and because of climate change
and water scarcity the agricultural production is in crisis. Through and integration of local
practices and scientific expertise local communities are trying to adapt to climate change
and to increase food availability.
The area has particular unfavorable conditions. Farmers have to deal with difficult situations
such as unfavorable temperatures and water scarcity. Besides, unpredictable climate
change effects are making the contest even worst. Helvetas, who is leading the project,
tries to make sure that farmers can use their traditional methods to improve their situation
given the current conditions. Although recognizing the important of local knowledge the aim
of the project is also to integrate it with new scientific discovers. In doing so there is a group
of expert farmers who are identify as the “brokers”. They are well seen from the community
and can therefore have the role to divulgate their own knowledge and to demonstrate how
to use traditional knowledge on climate variability and biological indictor together with new
expertise. In this way they can suggest other farmers to which kind of crop sowing and to
choose the best period to do that. The capacity to find solutions to better deal with extreme
conditions can of course have benefits on food security and households’ income.
The aim of the project is to create an agricultural system that can be resilient to climate
variability. Local agro biodiversity is revitalized using a participatory methods where local
and technological forms of innovation cooperate. Thanks to a more variety food productions
the nutritional model of the population is improved.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!117!Daily!G.,!et!alt.!(1998)!Food!Production,!Population!Growth,!and!the!Environment,!Science!Vol.!281!no.!5381!pp.!1291X1292,!p.!118 All! the! information! comes! from! the! Helvatas! website! and! the! Interview! to! the! Project! Coordinator! of! the!Disaster!Risk!Reduction!Programme!!“Coping! with! climate! variability! and! change! thanks! to! local! knowledge! and! modern! science”!http://www.helvetas.org/projects___countries/projects/keystone_projects/projects_in_the_americas/climate_change!and!http://bolivia.helvetas.org/actividades/proyectos_en_bolivia/projecto_seguridad_alimentaria/!!Paz!O.!(2014)!Personal!Interview!
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Another step is then to improve the technical capacity of local institutions and organizations
in order to make them able to support the development of the sector.
One of the main approaches in order to make sure to have a successful action is to base
the process is an intercultural dialog. The respect of local tradition and knowledge is just the
base, and a research in term of where to find the complementarity between local and
scientists in order to develop good practices an innovation is needed. Fundamental is then
of course the involvement of different stakeholders in order to validate, and share the
different practices technologies.
The latter refers to systems of livestock management, crop production, the choice of
specific crops over others, and improvements in water and soil management.
Benefits can be found in the improvement of the diet of rural households not only in
quantitative terms but also qualitative. In fact not only more food is available but also the
nutritional values is better.
It is also interesting how the woman role is valued in this project. Their contribution to
agriculture is in fact worth of attention. Besides they have an import role in shaping
education and consumption pattern in children. Promoting the participation in decision
arenas and involvement of vulnerable groups (not only woman then, but also e.g. old
people) is important.
Some efforts need to be made in order to capture the good contact point between scientific
information and the knowledge already in the hands of farmers. The aim is to grasp the
most from both.
The project of Helvetas shows that farmers are willing to know more about resilient
practices. They agree on the need to integrate local knowledge with technical and scientific
notions. A good example regards the information about weather forecast where farmers has
shown interest in learning how to use meteorological instruments to then integrate it inside
their own baggage of expertise. This could be useful for example to use to take decisions
regarding the right time to saw and what to expect from the agricultural activities.
According to Paz119, skeptical approach are more widespread on the scientific and scholar
sides then among local farmers. The academia environment have in fact difficulties to
accept local knowledge produced outside common scientific paths and local knowledge is
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accused of approximation. More visibility should be given to experiences which show the
fruitful potential of the collaboration. In doing that an important role can be played also by
policies.
The idea is to create a map where local information and climate information mix together in
order to five an efficient agricultural pacification.
Also in this project there is the witness of the importance of using modern technology to
spread knowledge, also in the case where part of that knowledge is part of the possession
of the target population. Not only oral speech has been used but also the production of
documents and videos. Videos where the protagonists was the farmers showing their
experience to other peers.
Trying to transfer this type of actions on other areas could be first done by showing the new
target audience the previous winning experience to make them agree on the potential of the
project.
Despite the great potential there are some variables that make the realizing of that projects
easier. First of all it is better doable in rural contests, or in general in those areas where
there is already a predisposition to safeguard local knowledge. Institutional structures can
have an important role in recognizing the potentials of the integration. Social structures is
also relevant, and participation of all the social groups is a prerequisite for a completely fully
employment of the benefits.
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CONCLUSION%%“There are large opportunities to be realized if the nexus is addressed coherently across all
scales, through multi-level governance with differentiated (but clearly defined)
responsibilities of institutions. At the local scale, trends for more participation and
decentralization co-develop with new guidelines and codes of conduct” should be
encourage.120
Producing more with less seems to be the key message. But despite being a nice slogan,
the step from acclaiming it to putting it in practice, with effective results, is not that easy121.
But only an increase of the production is not the answer. In fact, this has already been
happening but not enough positive results in terms of food security has been
corresponding. A policy intervention could help the ongoing trend involving also broader
fields such as “promoting of healthy and sustainable diets, [improving] early warning
systems to agricultural emergencies, [favoring] wiser an fairer trade regulation”122
Global food trade might appear as the perfect answer to balance, by importing and
exporting, the uneven distribution of food. Unfortunately thou it is notorious that in the reality
the market does not function in a perfect situation and there are therefore many obstacles
which impair the realization of a balancing of food availability through trade123.
Given that social and environmental values are not always well served by markets,
regulation and collective action promoted by social learning can help to guide investments
and innovation, so that negative externalities across sectors are minimized, benefits are
equitably shared and human rights are secured.124 !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!120!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!P.37X38!121!“Maximizing!energy!efficiency,!improving!irrigation!productivity!and!expanding!the!safe!reXuse!of!water!and!nutrient!resources!are!clearly!needed!to!achieve!this!goal.!Other!important!steps!include!attention!to!minimize!unintentional!movement!of!pollutants,!maintain!downstream!flows,!water!quality,!and!essential!habitats!for!pollinators!and!biodiversity,!such!as!forest!cover!and!grasslands;!improved!utilization!of!natural!infrastructure!for!water!storage;!preXemptive!planning!for!flood!prevention;!and!carbon!sequestration!for!stabilizing!the!climate!and!improving!soil!health.”!From!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholmp.6!122!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholm,!p.6!123!Jägerskog,!A.,!Jønch!Clausen,!T.!(eds.),!(2012).!Feeding!a!Thirsty!World!–!Challenges!and!Opportunities!for!a!Water!and!Food!Secure!Future.!Report!Nr.!31.!SIWI,!Stockholm!124!Hoff,!H.!(2011).!Understanding!the!Nexus.!Background!Paper!for!the!Bonn!2011!Conference:!The!Water,!Energy!and!Food!Security!Nexus.!Stockholm!Environment!Institute,!Stockholm.!Pp.37X38!
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What is extremely important should be also the attempt to improve transparency and
accountability in order to reduce corruption and land and water grabbing. Multi-stakeholder
collaboration is also encouraged125.
On the farm level, farmers must receive the necessary support to close the gap between
the potential yields their lands can bring and the actual harvest that they reap.
If we talk about crop irrigation there is a huge amount of water required to grown it. But not
only the production phase is consuming water also the processing phase. Moreover these
practices have to compete with others human activities in order to assure they have the
needed availability of water. Irrigation, power plant cooling, municipal drinking water, fossil
fuel production they all want to use the scarce water and need therefore to compete for it.
"When using blue water for agriculture […] more attention has to be paid to future river
basin realities, in particular the implications that continued economic development and
urban growth will have on the demand for local blue water sources."126
Moreover, the post 2015 agenda is been written now. It is therefore fundamental to catch
the attention of donors in order to prioritize the investments towards water issues. The
nexus approach is a promising tools to address SDGs and to promote an integrative view of
their realization. Also in the case of SDGs in fact, "achievement of targets under one goal
might affect targets under another goal".127
At the same time also natural and climate issues can put in jeopardy of water availability
(droughts are just an example regarding irrigation).
When thinking about food security is fundamental to take into account the effects that
climate can have on the food system and to consider approaches on adaptation in order to
achieve a "climate-smart food system that is more resilient to climate change influences on
food security"128.
Nowadays, when doing a geopolitical analysis climate change cannot be denied in the
evaluation. Global warming and all the consequences related to it are expecting to influence
all the spheres of the society, institutions and political structures included. Of course the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!125!SIWI!(2012),!Overarching!Conclusions,!World!Water!Week!in!Stockholm!2012:!Water!and!Food!Security.!SIWI,!Stockholm!p.13!126!Ibidem,!p.16!127!Weitz!N.!(2014)!CrossXsectoral!integration!in!the!Sustainable!Development!Goals:!a!nexus!approach,!Stockholm!Environmental!Institute,!Stockholm!Sweden!128!Wheeler!T.,!von!Braun!J.!(2013),!Climate!Change!Impacts!on!Global!Food!Security,!Science!341,!508X513!
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consequences are really different around the world but in every territory in order to explain
power conflicts climate change and its effects needs to be taken into account. !
The climate change process is occurring globally, while its effects are quite specific and
particularly localized.
In some areas of the African continent the main risk is the desertification while close to the
Nile Delta there is the risk of sea water infiltration. At the same time some islands risk to
face problems because of the sea level rise. Besides, there are some extreme phenomena
such as intense rains and their effects, effects that are visible also in western countries.
All these phenomena has the potential to increment the risk of climate motivated conflicts.
There is a hunting for natural resources and water is one example. The control of aquifers
in some dedicated areas can be a vector of war that should not be underestimated.
In order to reduce the calamity of climate change both social and hard science should find a
common ground where acting together. But in this contest multidisciplinary regards also the
involvement of the knowledge of local people. In order to orient the focus from national to
the river basin level it is important to gain the participation of both sides and to have the
possibility to use all type of knowledge and expertise.
The creation of a collaboration between science and policy does not of course happen by
itself. "Integrating different types of knowledge is inherently complex" and of course there is
"no single optimum approach"129
It is not easy to find a balanced relation but the interconnection should be welcomed
because they are able to add an important value to water and food management. It is
important to keep scientists and policy makers in contact in order to allow them to have a
fruitful exchange of insights and experiences.
It is worth to notice that the expression used is integration. The idea is to do not take
extreme positions where only local knowledge is seen as the solution. It is in fact
recognized the importance of a fair access to science as well130. With climate change
occurring, nothing can be underestimated and a synthesis of all the approaches is
encouraged. “Findings from scientific studies are essential for understanding climate threats
and changing climate patterns, but it is also important to study and document how the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!129 Raymond!M.!C.!et!alt.!(2010)!Integrating!local!and!scientific!knowledge!for!environmental!management,!Journal!of!Environmental!Mangement!Vol.91!pp.!1766X1777!!130!Wooley!J.!2014,!Personal!Interview!
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threats are perceived and handled by local people. Documentation of local knowledge and
perception, indigenous technology and local responses may serve as very important inputs
in assessing and prioritizing adaptation areas.”131!
It should be important to mix the knowledge produced in academic area to with the
expertise held by non/academics actors such as land managers and the public.
Participatory research methods are also encouraged in order to make the production of
knowledge more inclusive. Furthermore water managers "may have implicit or deeper tacit
knowledge about the flooding and drying cycles of a wetland but may either have not yet
articulated this knowledge or may have found it difficult to explicitly explain why they know
what they know"132
The idea that needs to be understood is that local people should be listened not just
because it is correct that they participate, it is not a matter of right. The importance comes
from the enormous potential that their involvement could have133. It is therefore time to let
the barriers between different knowledge fall. !
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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!131!Dhal!S.,!(2013)!Role!of!Indegenous!Knowledge!in!Climate!Change!Adaptation,!http://www.academia.edu/3272572/Indigenous_Knowledge_in_Climate_Change_Adaptation!132!Raymond!M.!C.!et!alt.!(2010)!Integrating!local!and!scientific!knowledge!for!environmental!management,!Journal!of!Environmental!Mangement!Vol.91!pp.!1766X1777!p.17667!133!Ibidem!
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