政経研究

　第五十六巻第四号（二〇二〇年三月）

一三四

ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿

─第 2 章と第 3 章（翻刻）─

川　又　　　祐吉　野　　　篤荒　井　祐　介

トーマス・ロックリー

日本大学図書館法学部分館（法学部図書館）は、ジョン・ステュアー

ト・ミル（JohnStuartMill.1806-1873）の『代議制統治論＊』自筆草稿を

所蔵している。私たち著者は、前稿に引き続き、本草稿の翻刻に取り

組んでいる。本稿で翻刻されるのは、『代議制統治論』第 2 章と第 3 章

である。

前稿（序言と第 1 章）は、『法学紀要』60 巻に掲載された。翻刻は、

政経研究所における共同研究の成果である。本来であれば、その成果

は『法学紀要』に掲載すべきである。しかしながら、『法学紀要』の刊

行は年 1 回である。私たちは、翻刻作業を迅速かつ着実に進めるため、

掲載誌が複数になっても、『法学紀要』と『政経研究』において翻刻を

掲載することとした。

翻刻に際して、翻刻文に下線が引かれているものは、ミル本人よっ

て下線が引かれていることを表している。翻刻文に二重の下線が引か

れているものは、私たちが翻刻できなかったものを、灰色に着色され

ているものは、いまだその翻刻に確信が持てないものを表している。

（　）で示された部分はミルによるもの、［　］で示された部分は、筆者

資　料

（一四〇四）

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ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿（川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー）

一三三

たちが補ったものである。

＊前稿においてミルの表題を『代議政治論』と表記してきた。この度、関口正司訳『代議制統治論』岩波書店、2019 年が公刊された。従って、今後は『代議制統治論』と表記する。

凡例下　　線：ミル本人によって引かれた線二重下線：筆者たちが翻刻できなかった単語灰色部分：翻刻に確信が持てない単語（　　）：ミル本人が記したもの［　　］：筆者たちが補ったもの

Bibliography：［ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment］.［s.l.］：［s.n.］.［1860］.Untitledautographmanuscript.228leavesin11［AtoK］quires.Aquire:24leaves,Bquire:24leaves,CtoJquire:each20leaves,Kquire:20leaves(7leavesblank).

掲載誌／ Jounals

Preface 「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議政治論』自筆草稿─序言と第 1 章（翻刻）─」『法学紀要』60 巻、2019 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofPrefaceandChapter1.HOGAKU KIYO.Vol.60.2019.https://www.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/publication/doc/bulletin60.pdf

［Ch.1］ Towhat extent formsofgovernmentareamatterofchoice

［Ch.2］ The Criterion of agoodFormofGovernment

「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿─第 2 章と第 3 章（翻刻）─」『政経研究』56 巻 4 号、2020 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofChapter2and3.SEIKEI KENKYU.Vol.56(4).2020.

［Ch.3］ That the ideally bestf o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t i srepresentativegovernment

［Ch.16］ Of Nationality, asconnectedwithRepresentativeGovernment

「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿─第 16、17、18 章（翻刻）─」『法学紀要』61 巻、2020 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofChapter16,17and18.HOGAKU KIYO.Vol.61.2020.

［Ch.17］ Ofthegovernmentofdependenciesbyafreestate

［Ch.18］ O f F e d e r a lRepresentativeGovernments

川又祐「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議政治論』自筆草稿（日本大学法学部図書館所蔵）について」『政経研究』52 巻 2 号、2015 年

Kawamata, H. “John StuartMill’s AutographedDraftManuscript Considerations onRepresentativeGovernment in theNihonUniversityCollegeofLawLibrary.”SEIKEI KENKYU.Vol.52(2).2015.

https://www.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/publication/doc/political52_2.pdf

（一四〇三）

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John Stuart Mill’s Autographed Draft Manuscript “Considerations on Representative Government.”

Transcription of Chapter 2 and 3.

Hiroshi KawamataAtsushi Yoshino

Yusuke AraiThomas Lockley

NihonUniversityCollegeofLaw (NUCL)LibraryhousesaJohn

StuartMill’s autographed draftmanuscript of “Considerations on

RepresentativeGovernment” ca. 1860.This time,we transcribe the

chapter2and3fromit.Inordertotranscribethemrapidlyandsurely,

wewill issue the transcriptionofConsiderations to theJournalsof

NUCL,HOGAKU KIYOandSEIKEI KENKYU.

Theunderline iswrittenbyMillhimself.Regrettably, thedouble

underlinedpartsare thewordswhichwecouldn’t transcribe.Word

aboutwhichwe areunsure are gray colored.Parentheses ( ) are

complementedbyMill.Brackets［］arebyus.（一四〇二）

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一三三

たちが補ったものである。

＊前稿においてミルの表題を『代議政治論』と表記してきた。この度、関口正司訳『代議制統治論』岩波書店、2019 年が公刊された。従って、今後は『代議制統治論』と表記する。

凡例下　　線：ミル本人によって引かれた線二重下線：筆者たちが翻刻できなかった単語灰色部分：翻刻に確信が持てない単語（　　）：ミル本人が記したもの［　　］：筆者たちが補ったもの

Bibliography：［ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment］.［s.l.］：［s.n.］.［1860］.Untitledautographmanuscript.228leavesin11［AtoK］quires.Aquire:24leaves,Bquire:24leaves,CtoJquire:each20leaves,Kquire:20leaves(7leavesblank).

掲載誌／ Jounals

Preface 「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議政治論』自筆草稿─序言と第 1 章（翻刻）─」『法学紀要』60 巻、2019 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofPrefaceandChapter1.HOGAKU KIYO.Vol.60.2019.https://www.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/publication/doc/bulletin60.pdf

［Ch.1］ Towhat extent formsofgovernmentareamatterofchoice

［Ch.2］ The Criterion of agoodFormofGovernment

「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿─第 2 章と第 3 章（翻刻）─」『政経研究』56 巻 4 号、2020 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofChapter2and3.SEIKEI KENKYU.Vol.56(4).2020.

［Ch.3］ That the ideally bestf o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t i srepresentativegovernment

［Ch.16］ Of Nationality, asconnectedwithRepresentativeGovernment

「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿─第 16、17、18 章（翻刻）─」『法学紀要』61 巻、2020 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofChapter16,17and18.HOGAKU KIYO.Vol.61.2020.

［Ch.17］ Ofthegovernmentofdependenciesbyafreestate

［Ch.18］ O f F e d e r a lRepresentativeGovernments

川又祐「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議政治論』自筆草稿（日本大学法学部図書館所蔵）について」『政経研究』52 巻 2 号、2015 年

Kawamata, H. “John StuartMill’s AutographedDraftManuscript Considerations onRepresentativeGovernment in theNihonUniversityCollegeofLawLibrary.”SEIKEI KENKYU.Vol.52(2).2015.

https://www.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/publication/doc/political52_2.pdf

（一四〇三）

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A_014toB_008.［Chapter2］

A_014

TheCriterionofagoodFormofGovernment.

Theformofgovernmentforanygivencountrybeing

then,subjecttocertaindefiniteconditions,amatterofchoice,itisnow

tobeconsideredbywhattestthechoiceshouldbedirected;inother

words,what

arethedistinguishingcharacteristicsoftheformofgovernmentbest

fittedtopromotetheinterestsofanygivensociety.

Itmayseemthatweoughttobeginbyansweringthepreliminary

question,whataretheproperfunctionsofagovernment?for［sic］since

governmentaltogetherisameanstoanend,theeligibilityofthe

meansmustnecessarilydependonthedegreeoftheiradaptation

totheend.Butthismodeofstatingthequestionisnot,inthepresent

stageatleast

soappropriateasitmight,atfirstsight,appear.Forinthefirstplace

theproperfunctionsofgovernmentaredifferentindifferentstates

ofsociety ;muchmore intensive inabackward, than inanadvanced

state.

Andsecondly,thecharacterofagovernmentorsetofpolitical

institutionscannotbyanymeansbe judgedofwhileweconfine the

discussion

tothelegitimatefunctionsofgovernment;forthoughthegoodnessof

agovernmentisnecessarilycircumscribedwithinlimitsoffunctions

itsbadnessunhappilyisnot.Theinfluenceofthegovernmentonthe

wellbeingofsocietyhasnoboundsexceptthoseofhumanlifeitself.It

can

（一四〇〇）

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Image A_020

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beconsideredorestimatedinreferencetonothinglessthanthe

wholeof the interests ofhumanity.Theutmost evil that society is

susceptible

of,maybeinflictedbyagovernment,&thewholeofthegoodwhich

itiscapableof,canonlyberealizedinsofarastheconstitutionofthe

governmentisconsistentwithitspursuit.

Beingthusobligedtoplacebeforeus,intheoutsetofone

enquiry,asthetestofgoodorbadgovernment,solarge&complexan

objectastheaggregateinterestsofsociety,itisanobvious

ideatobeginbysomekindofclassificationoftheseinterests,whichby

bringingthembeforethemindinlarge&definitegroups,maysuggest

what

A_015

qualitiesintheformofgovernmentarefittedtopromotethose

variousinterestsrespectively.

Unfortunately,asweshallsee,aclassificationoftheinterests

ofsocietyismucheasiertoconceive,thantoexecute.Nearlyallwho

in the lastorpresentgenerationhaveappliedthemselvestopolitical

philosophy

with any largeness of view, have felt the necessity of such a

classification;

butIamnotawarethatanyofthemhasmademorethanone

steptowardstherealizationofthedesiredobject.Theirclassification

beginsandendswith thepartitionof theexigenciesofsocietyunder

the

two heads ofOrder andProgress, as it is expressed byFrench

thinkers:

PermanenceandProgression,inthewordsofColeridge.Thisdivision

（一三九九）

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isrendered

very plausible& seductive by the apparently clean-cut opposition

betweenitstwomembers,

&theremarkabledifferencebetweensentimentstowhichthey

severallyappeal;butI

apprehend,thathoweveradmissibleinpopulardiscourse,

thedistinctionbetweenOrder,orPermanence,&Progress,

ifusedtodefinethequalities

necessaryinagovernment,isaltogetherunscientific&unphilosophical.

For, first,what areOrder&Progress ?ConcerningProgress

thereisatleastnoapparent

difficulty.WhenProgressisspokenofasoneofthetruegreatwantsof

humansociety, itmaybe supposed tomean Improvement.That is a

tolerablydistinct

idea.ButwhatisOrder?Sometimesitmeansmore,&sometimesless;

butitnever,orhardlyevermeansthewholeofwhathumansociety

needsexceptimprovement.

Initsnarrowestsense,OrdermeansObedience.Agovernment

issaidtopreserveorderifitmakesitselfobeyed.Inthissense

Orderexpresses,doubtless,anindispensableattributeofgovernment:

that

whichdoesnotmakeitselfobeyed,isnotagovernment.But

thoughanecessarycondition, this certainly isnot thepurposeofa

government.

Thatitshouldmakeitselfobeyedisrequisiteinorderthatitmay

accomplishsomeotherpurpose.Wearestillthereforeto

A_016

findwhatisthepurpose,commontoallsociety,whichgovernmentought

（一三九八）

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beconsideredorestimatedinreferencetonothinglessthanthe

wholeof the interests ofhumanity.Theutmost evil that society is

susceptible

of,maybeinflictedbyagovernment,&thewholeofthegoodwhich

itiscapableof,canonlyberealizedinsofarastheconstitutionofthe

governmentisconsistentwithitspursuit.

Beingthusobligedtoplacebeforeus,intheoutsetofone

enquiry,asthetestofgoodorbadgovernment,solarge&complexan

objectastheaggregateinterestsofsociety,itisanobvious

ideatobeginbysomekindofclassificationoftheseinterests,whichby

bringingthembeforethemindinlarge&definitegroups,maysuggest

what

A_015

qualitiesintheformofgovernmentarefittedtopromotethose

variousinterestsrespectively.

Unfortunately,asweshallsee,aclassificationoftheinterests

ofsocietyismucheasiertoconceive,thantoexecute.Nearlyallwho

in the lastorpresentgenerationhaveappliedthemselvestopolitical

philosophy

with any largeness of view, have felt the necessity of such a

classification;

butIamnotawarethatanyofthemhasmademorethanone

steptowardstherealizationofthedesiredobject.Theirclassification

beginsandendswith thepartitionof theexigenciesofsocietyunder

the

two heads ofOrder andProgress, as it is expressed byFrench

thinkers:

PermanenceandProgression,inthewordsofColeridge.Thisdivision

（一三九九）

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to fulfil, abstractedly from the ideaof improvement, in any society

whatever

stationary,aswellasprogressive.

Inasensesomewhatmoreenlarged,Ordermeansthepreservation

ofpeacesbythecessation

ofprivateviolence.Orderissaidtoexist,where

thepeopleofacountryhave,generallyspeaking

relinquishedthepracticeofprosecutingtheirquarrelsby

privateforce,&acquiredthehabitofreferringthedecisionof

theirdisputes,&the

punishmentoftheirinjuriestothepublic

authorities.This isa largeruseofthetermthantheforegoing :but,

even

inthissense,Orderstillexpressesratheroneoftheconditionsof

government,thaneitheritspurposeoritstest.For

thehabitmaybecompletelyestablishedofsubmittingtogovernment

&referringalldisputedmatterstoitsauthority,&yetthemannerin

which

thegovernmentdealswith thosedisputedmatters,&withall other

matters

withwhichitmeddles,maydifferbyallthedistancewhichexists

betweenthebest&theworstpossible.

TomaketheideaofOrderincludealltheserequirements

ofsocietyfromitsgovernmentwhicharenotcomprehendedintheidea

of

Progress, it is necessary to considerOrder as equivalent to the

preservationof

everykind&amountofgoodwhichalreadyexists,

andProgressasconsistingintheincreaseofit.

（一三九七）

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Thedistinction,thusunderstood,doesincludeinonesectionorthe

other,everythingwhichagovernmentcanberequired

topromote.Butthusunderstood,itaffordsnobasisfora

philosophyofgovernment.Itcannotbesaidthat

inconstitutingagovernment,certainprovisionsmustbemadefor

Order,&certainothersforProgress;SincetheconditionsofOrder,

asthus

interpreted,&thoseofProgress,arenotopposites,butpreciselythe

same.

A_017

Theagencieswhichtendtopreservethesocialgood

whichalreadyexists,arethesameagencieswhichtendtoincreaseit

&viceversa;thesoledifferencesbeing,thatagreaterdegreeofthose

agencies

isrequiredforthelatterpurposethanfortheformer.

Forexample,whatarethequalitiesintheindividualcitizen

whichmostconducetomaintainingtheamountofgoodconduct,of

goodmanagement, of success&prosperity,which already exist in

society?

Everybodywillagreethatthosequalitiesare,industry,integrity,

justice,&prudence.Butarenotthese,ofallqualities

themostconducivetoImprovement?&［sic］isnotanyincreaseofthese

virtues

animprovementinitselfgreater,thanalmostany

other?Therefore,whateverqualitiesinthe

governmentarepromotiveofindustry,integrity,justice,&

prudence,areconducivebothtoPermanence&toProgression;

onlythereisneededrathermoreofthosequalitiestomakethesociety

（一三九六）

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to fulfil, abstractedly from the ideaof improvement, in any society

whatever

stationary,aswellasprogressive.

Inasensesomewhatmoreenlarged,Ordermeansthepreservation

ofpeacesbythecessation

ofprivateviolence.Orderissaidtoexist,where

thepeopleofacountryhave,generallyspeaking

relinquishedthepracticeofprosecutingtheirquarrelsby

privateforce,&acquiredthehabitofreferringthedecisionof

theirdisputes,&the

punishmentoftheirinjuriestothepublic

authorities.This isa largeruseofthetermthantheforegoing :but,

even

inthissense,Orderstillexpressesratheroneoftheconditionsof

government,thaneitheritspurposeoritstest.For

thehabitmaybecompletelyestablishedofsubmittingtogovernment

&referringalldisputedmatterstoitsauthority,&yetthemannerin

which

thegovernmentdealswith thosedisputedmatters,&withall other

matters

withwhichitmeddles,maydifferbyallthedistancewhichexists

betweenthebest&theworstpossible.

TomaketheideaofOrderincludealltheserequirements

ofsocietyfromitsgovernmentwhicharenotcomprehendedintheidea

of

Progress, it is necessary to considerOrder as equivalent to the

preservationof

everykind&amountofgoodwhichalreadyexists,

andProgressasconsistingintheincreaseofit.

（一三九七）

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decidedlyprogressive,thanmerelytokeepitpermanent.

Again,whataretheparticularqualitiesinhumanbeingswhich

seemtohaveamoreespecialreferencetoProgress,&donotso

directlysuggesttheideasofOrder&Preservation?Theyare,chiefly,

thequalitiesofmentalactivity,enterprise,&courage.But

arenotallthesequalitiesfullyasnecessaryforpreservingthegood

wehave, as foraddingothergood to it ? If there is anyone thing

certain

in human affairs, it is, that valuable acquisitions are only to be

preservedbythe

continuationofthesameenergieswhichgainedthem;thatthingsleft

totakecareofthemselvesinevitablydecay;thatthosewhomsuccess

inducestorelaxtheirhabitsofcarefulness&thoughtfulness&their

willingness

toencounterdisagreeables,seldomlongretaintheirgoodfortuneatits

height.

EventheculminationofthequalitieswhichtendtoProgress,namely,

originalityorinvention,isnolessnecessaryforPermanence;sincein

the inevitable changesofhumanaffairs, new inconveniences&new

dangers

A_018

continuallyopeningup,whichmustbeencounteredbynewresources

and

contrivancesinordertokeepthingsgoingevenonlyaswellastheydid

before.

Whatever qualities therefore in a government tend to encourage

activity,

energy,courage,originality,arerequisite forPermanenceaswellas

（一三九五）

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一二四

for

Progression;onlyasomewhatlessdegreeofthemwillonthe

averagesufficefortheformerpurpose,thanforthelatter.

Topassfromthementaltotheoutward&objectiverequisites

ofsociety,itisimpossibletopointoutanyarrangementofsocialaffairs

which

conducestoOrderonlyorProgressonly ;whateverpromoteseither

promotes

both.Thustakethecaseofapolice.Orderisthe

objectwhichmost obviously presents itself as interested in the

efficiency

ofthispartofthesocialorganization.Yetifitiseffectualto

promoteorder,thatis,ifitrepressescrime,&enableseveryoneoneto

feel

hislife&propertysecure,cananystateofthingsbemore

conducivetoprogress?does［sic］notthebetterrepressionofcrime

repressalsothedispositionwhichtendtocrime,&soimprovethe

generalmorality?Isnotthegreatersecurityofpropertyoneof

themainconditionsandcausesofgreaterproduction,thatis

ofProgressinthemostfamiliarform?Doesnotthereleaseofthe

individualfromthecares&anxietiesincidentto

astateofimperfectprotection,sethisfacultiesatlibertytobe

employedineverykindofeffortforimprovinghisownstate&that

ofothers?Anddoesnotthesamecause,byattachinghimto

society,&makinghimnolongerseeinhisfellowcreaturesenemies

againstwhomhemustbeeveronhisguard,tendtopromoteallthese

feelingsofkindness&fellowshiptowardsothers,&ofinterestin

thegeneralwell beingof the community,whichare such important

partsofsocial

（一三九四）

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decidedlyprogressive,thanmerelytokeepitpermanent.

Again,whataretheparticularqualitiesinhumanbeingswhich

seemtohaveamoreespecialreferencetoProgress,&donotso

directlysuggesttheideasofOrder&Preservation?Theyare,chiefly,

thequalitiesofmentalactivity,enterprise,&courage.But

arenotallthesequalitiesfullyasnecessaryforpreservingthegood

wehave, as foraddingothergood to it ? If there is anyone thing

certain

in human affairs, it is, that valuable acquisitions are only to be

preservedbythe

continuationofthesameenergieswhichgainedthem;thatthingsleft

totakecareofthemselvesinevitablydecay;thatthosewhomsuccess

inducestorelaxtheirhabitsofcarefulness&thoughtfulness&their

willingness

toencounterdisagreeables,seldomlongretaintheirgoodfortuneatits

height.

EventheculminationofthequalitieswhichtendtoProgress,namely,

originalityorinvention,isnolessnecessaryforPermanence;sincein

the inevitable changesofhumanaffairs, new inconveniences&new

dangers

A_018

continuallyopeningup,whichmustbeencounteredbynewresources

and

contrivancesinordertokeepthingsgoingevenonlyaswellastheydid

before.

Whatever qualities therefore in a government tend to encourage

activity,

energy,courage,originality,arerequisite forPermanenceaswellas

（一三九五）

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一二三

improvement?

Takeagainsofamiliaracaseasthatofagoodsystemoftaxation

A_019

&finance.ThisisusuallysufferedtobeintheprovinceofOrder.Yet

cananythingbemoreconducivetoProgress?Afinancial

systemwhichtendstotheoneconducesbytheverysamequalities

totheother.Economy,forexample:doesnotthatequally

preserve the existing stock ofwealth,& favour the acquisition of

more?

Ajustdistributionofburthens;doesnotthisstrengthenthesentiment

ofjusticeinapeopleaswellassatisfythatsentiment?Sucha

mode of levying the taxes as does not impede the industry, or

unnecessarily

interferewiththelibertyofthecitizen;thispromotes

notthepreservationonlybuttheincreaseofthenationalwealth&the

moreactiveuseofthe

individualfaculties.Andviceversa,allthose

errorsintaxationwhichobstructtheimprovementofapeople

inwealth&morals,tendalsotoimpoverish&demoralizethemwith

further.Itholds,inshort,universally,that

whenOrder&Permanenceunderstood in theirwidest sense,as the

permanenceof

existingadvantages,

therequisitesofProgressarebuttherequisitesofOrder

inagreaterdegree;thoseofPermanence,merelythoseofProgress

inasomewhatsmallermeasure.

OrifweprefertodescribeOrderasthegoodmanagementof

public affairs in the existing state of society, apart from any

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improvement

in the state of society itself ;& to say, that it is thebusiness of

government

ontheonehandtoimprovesociety,&ontheothertocarryonits

presentaffairsaswellasisconsistentwithitspresentstate:Thisis

only

statingoveragainthesamequestioninadifferentformofwords.

Managingtheaffairsofsocietyaswellasitsexistingconditionadmits

of,means

what （ 1 ）as first laws,asgoodarrangements foradministrating

justice,

asperfectsecurity,asmuchfreedombothof

thought&ofaction,asamplereward&encouragementtoeveryuseful

A_020

［Leftsideofpage.Aquire019verso.］

(a)IfitbesaidthatPreservationofexisting&Acquisition

ofadditionalgoodacquiretobedistinguishedbecausewhilewe

areacquiring,orstrivingtoacquire,goodofonekindwemay

belosinggroundinrespecttoanother;Ishallthenobserve,that

thereconciliationofOrder&Progresspresentsonly

thesameproblemasthereconciliationofonekindofProgress

withanother.ThequestionofProgressthusembracestheentire

questionofgovernment;forifoneknowshowtocombineimprovement

inonething

withimprovementineveryother,bythesamemeans

itwillàfortioribecombinedwiththepreservationofallourexisting

acquisitions.

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improvement?

Takeagainsofamiliaracaseasthatofagoodsystemoftaxation

A_019

&finance.ThisisusuallysufferedtobeintheprovinceofOrder.Yet

cananythingbemoreconducivetoProgress?Afinancial

systemwhichtendstotheoneconducesbytheverysamequalities

totheother.Economy,forexample:doesnotthatequally

preserve the existing stock ofwealth,& favour the acquisition of

more?

Ajustdistributionofburthens;doesnotthisstrengthenthesentiment

ofjusticeinapeopleaswellassatisfythatsentiment?Sucha

mode of levying the taxes as does not impede the industry, or

unnecessarily

interferewiththelibertyofthecitizen;thispromotes

notthepreservationonlybuttheincreaseofthenationalwealth&the

moreactiveuseofthe

individualfaculties.Andviceversa,allthose

errorsintaxationwhichobstructtheimprovementofapeople

inwealth&morals,tendalsotoimpoverish&demoralizethemwith

further.Itholds,inshort,universally,that

whenOrder&Permanenceunderstood in theirwidest sense,as the

permanenceof

existingadvantages,

therequisitesofProgressarebuttherequisitesofOrder

inagreaterdegree;thoseofPermanence,merelythoseofProgress

inasomewhatsmallermeasure.

OrifweprefertodescribeOrderasthegoodmanagementof

public affairs in the existing state of society, apart from any

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［Rightsideofpage.Aquire020recto.］

actionordisposition,ascanbegivenintheexistingstateofhuman

improvement.Andcantherebeconceivedamorecompleteexpression

ofthemostperfectpossiblearrangementforprecisely

furtherprogress?Agovernmentwhichifitdidnothingelsedoesthis

forthefurtherance

ofProgression,wouldyetbeagovernmentofProgress.

IfthetermsOrder&Progressaretobeusedatallintheattempt

togiveafirst

commencementofscientificprecisiontotheideaofgoodgovernment,it

wouldseempropertoleaveoutofthedefinitionthewordOrder,&to

say, that the best government is thatwhich ismost conducive to

Progress.

ForProgressincludesOrder,butOrderdoesnotincludeProgress.

ProgressisagreaterdegreeofthatofwhichOrderisaless.Atleast

ifOrderisunderstoodinanyothersense,itstandsonly

foraportionoftheprerequisitesofgoodgovernment,notforits

idea&essence.The idea ofOrderwouldbemoreproperly taught

under

noticeasoneoftheconditionsofProgress;totheintentthat

inendeavouringaftermoregood,weshouldtakeduecarenot

tosacrificethatwhichwealreadyhave.Ifwemakethissacrificeunless

necessarily

&asthepriceofagoodmorethanequivalent,thereisnot

Progress.Conduciveness toprogress, therefore,properlyunderstood,

contains

thewholeexcellenceofagovernment.(a)

But,thoughperhapsmetaphysicallydefensible,thisdefinitionof

thecriterionofgoodgovernmentisnotappropriate,because

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though itcomprehendsthewholeof thetruth itsuggestsonlyapart.

Whatis

suggestedbythetermProgressistheideaofmovingonward,whereas

themeaningofithereisquiteasmuchthepreventionoffallingback.

The

verysamesocialcauses,thesamehabits&institutionsare

asmuchrequiredtopreventsocietyfromdeterioratingastoimpelitto

an

advance.Weretherenoimprovementtobehopedfor,

humanlifeinallits（ 2 ）wouldbenolessaperennial

A_021

struggleagainstdeterioration:asitisevennowis.

Inthe

ideasof theancients,politics consistedwholly in this.Thenatural

tendency

ofmen&theirworkswastodegenerate,whichtendency,by

goodinstitutionsvirtuouslyadministered,it

mightbepossibleforanindefinitelengthoftimetocounteract.Though

wenolongerholdthisopinion;though,mostmeninthe

presentagebelievethatthenaturaltendencyofthingsonthewhole

istowardsimprovement,itisatruthwhichshouldneverbe

unheeded that there isan incessant&everflowingcurrentofhuman

affairs

towardstheworse,consistingofallthefollies,allthevices,allthe

negligences,indolences&supinenessesofmankind;whichisonly

controlled&kept fromsweepingallbefore itbytheexertionswhich

some

constantly&othersbyfitsputforthinthedirectionof

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［Rightsideofpage.Aquire020recto.］

actionordisposition,ascanbegivenintheexistingstateofhuman

improvement.Andcantherebeconceivedamorecompleteexpression

ofthemostperfectpossiblearrangementforprecisely

furtherprogress?Agovernmentwhichifitdidnothingelsedoesthis

forthefurtherance

ofProgression,wouldyetbeagovernmentofProgress.

IfthetermsOrder&Progressaretobeusedatallintheattempt

togiveafirst

commencementofscientificprecisiontotheideaofgoodgovernment,it

wouldseempropertoleaveoutofthedefinitionthewordOrder,&to

say, that the best government is thatwhich ismost conducive to

Progress.

ForProgressincludesOrder,butOrderdoesnotincludeProgress.

ProgressisagreaterdegreeofthatofwhichOrderisaless.Atleast

ifOrderisunderstoodinanyothersense,itstandsonly

foraportionoftheprerequisitesofgoodgovernment,notforits

idea&essence.The idea ofOrderwouldbemoreproperly taught

under

noticeasoneoftheconditionsofProgress;totheintentthat

inendeavouringaftermoregood,weshouldtakeduecarenot

tosacrificethatwhichwealreadyhave.Ifwemakethissacrificeunless

necessarily

&asthepriceofagoodmorethanequivalent,thereisnot

Progress.Conduciveness toprogress, therefore,properlyunderstood,

contains

thewholeexcellenceofagovernment.(a)

But,thoughperhapsmetaphysicallydefensible,thisdefinitionof

thecriterionofgoodgovernmentisnotappropriate,because

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good&worthyobjects.Itgivesaveryinsufficientideaofthe

importanceofthestrivingswhichtakeplaceto

improve&elevatehumannature&humanlife,to

supposethattheirchiefvalueconsistsintheamountof

actualimprovementrealizedbytheirmeans,&thattheconsequence

oftheircessationwouldmerelybethatweshouldremainasweare.

Thecessationofevenasmallpartof thoseexertionswouldnotonly

puta

stoptoimprovementbutwouldturnthe

generaltendencyofthingstowardsdeterioration;which,oncebegun

wouldproceedwithincreasingrapidity,andbecomemore

&moredifficulttocheck,untilitreachedapoint,whichsomeages

have&somecommunitiesareevennowlarge（ 3 ）

onwhichsomethingapproachingtosuperhumanpowerseemsnecessary

toturnthetide,&giveanewcommencementtothe

upwardmovement.

ThesereasonsrenderthewordProgress,asunfitas

A_022

thetermsOrder&Permanence,toformthebasisofanyclassification

oftherequisitesofaformofgovernment.Thefundamental

antithesiswhichthesewordsdenote,doesnotlieinthe

things themselves somuch as in the twodifferent types of human

characterwhich

answertothem.Thereare,aseveryoneknows,somemindsin

whichcaution,&thedesiretoavoidimperillingwhatisalready

possessed,isastrongersentimentthanthatwhichprompts

toimprovetheold&acquirenewadvantages;whilethereareother’s

minds in which the preponderance is the contrary way. This

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considerationisof

importanceincomposingthepersonnelofanypoliticalbody;itis

desirable that persons of both types should be included in its

composition

inorderthatthequalitiesofeachmaybetemperedwiththoseofthe

other,&itisrightthatinthe

constitutionofsuchbodies,attentionpaidtothisobject,

thoughthenatural&spontaneousadmixtureoftheoldandtheyoung,

ofthosewhosepositionandreputationaremade&those

whohavethemstilltomake,willingeneralsufficiently

answerthepurposeswithoutanyexpressprovision.

Sincewehavenotfoundthepropertiesnecessaryfor

thegroundworkofourclassification,inthedistinctionmostusually

adoptedforthatpurpose,wehavetoseekfor

someotherleadingdistinction,betteradaptedtothatuse.Such

adistinctionmayperhapsbeindicatedbythefollowingconsiderations.

Whenweconsiderwhatarethecausesof&conditions

onwhichgoodgovernment,inanyofitssenses,fromthehumblest

tothemostexalted,depends,wefindtheprincipalofthemtobe,the

qualitiesofthehumanbeingscomposingthesociety

overwhichthegovernmentisexercised.

Forexample, taketheadministrationof justice.Thecharacterof

themachineryused

A_023

forthatpurposeisfarfrombeingunimportant;indeeditisinsome

respectsimportantinevenahighersensethaniscommonlysupported.

Butityieldsinimportancetothequalitiesofthehumanagents.How

forexamplecantherebeagoodadministrationofjusticeifthemoral

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good&worthyobjects.Itgivesaveryinsufficientideaofthe

importanceofthestrivingswhichtakeplaceto

improve&elevatehumannature&humanlife,to

supposethattheirchiefvalueconsistsintheamountof

actualimprovementrealizedbytheirmeans,&thattheconsequence

oftheircessationwouldmerelybethatweshouldremainasweare.

Thecessationofevenasmallpartof thoseexertionswouldnotonly

puta

stoptoimprovementbutwouldturnthe

generaltendencyofthingstowardsdeterioration;which,oncebegun

wouldproceedwithincreasingrapidity,andbecomemore

&moredifficulttocheck,untilitreachedapoint,whichsomeages

have&somecommunitiesareevennowlarge（ 3 ）

onwhichsomethingapproachingtosuperhumanpowerseemsnecessary

toturnthetide,&giveanewcommencementtothe

upwardmovement.

ThesereasonsrenderthewordProgress,asunfitas

A_022

thetermsOrder&Permanence,toformthebasisofanyclassification

oftherequisitesofaformofgovernment.Thefundamental

antithesiswhichthesewordsdenote,doesnotlieinthe

things themselves somuch as in the twodifferent types of human

characterwhich

answertothem.Thereare,aseveryoneknows,somemindsin

whichcaution,&thedesiretoavoidimperillingwhatisalready

possessed,isastrongersentimentthanthatwhichprompts

toimprovetheold&acquirenewadvantages;whilethereareother’s

minds in which the preponderance is the contrary way. This

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conditionofthepeopleissuchthatthewitnessesgenerallylie,&

thejudges&theirsubordinatestakebribes?Again,howisitpossible

to

haveagoodmunicipaladministration, if there issuch indifference to

the

subjectthatthepersonswhowouldadministerhonestly&competently

areunwillingtoserve,&thedutiesarelefttothosewhoundertake

themfrommotivesofprivateinterest?Ofwhatavailisthemost

extensivelypopularrepresentativesystem,ifthosewhohavearight

tovotedonot care tochoose the fittestmemberofparliament, but

choose

him who will spend most money to be elected ? How can a

representative

assemblyworkforgoodifitsmembersarebought&sold,oriftheir

excitabilityoftemperamentmakesthemincapableofcalmdeliberation

&theycometoblowsonthefloorofthe

house,orshootatoneanotherwithrifles?How,again,isit

possiblethatgovernmentoranyotherjointconcerncanbewell

carriedon,amongapeoplesoenviousthatifanyoneamongthem

seemslikelytosucceedinanything,thereisimmediatelyaconfederacy

amongthose

whooughttocooperatewithhim,tomakehimfail?When

thegeneraldispositionofthepeopleissuchasleads

eachtoregardonlythoseofhisinterestswhichareselfish&not

todwelluponorconcernhimselfforhisshareofthegeneral

interest,nogoodgovernmentispossible.Ihavespokenonlyofmoral

defects.Defectsofintelligence,&theirinfluencein

obstructingalltheelementsofgoodgovernmentrequirenoillustration.

Allgovernmentconsistsofactsdonebymen;&ifthemenwho

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dotheacts,orthemenwhochoosethosewhodotheacts,orthemen

towhomthosewhodotheactsareresponsible,orthelookers-onwhose

opinionoughttoinfluence&checkthosewhodotheacts,ifallor

any of these aremeremasses of ignorance, stupidity,& baleful

prejudice

A_024

alltheoperationsofgovernmentwillgowrong;&inproportionasthe

men

riseabovethisstandard,sowillthegovernmentimproveinquality;

uptothehighestpointofexcellenceattainable,namely

whentheagentsofgovernment,themselvespersonsofsuperiorvirtue

&intellect,aresurroundedbythehealthyatmosphereofavirtuous

&enlightenedpublicopinion.

Thefirstelementofgoodgovernment,thereforebeingthevirtue&

intelligenceofthepeople,itfollowsasadirectcorollarythatthemost

importantpointofexcellencewhichanyformofgovernmentcan

have, is a tendency to promote virtue& intelligence in the people

themselves.

Thefirstquestiontobeaskedinrespecttopoliticalinstitutionsin

ordertodecideontheirrelativeeligibility,is,howfardotheytendto

cultivatedesirablequalities,moral&intellectual.Letus

say,moral,intellectual,&active,inthepeople.Thegovernment

whichdoesthisbest,haseverychanceofbeingthebestinallother

respectsbecauseitisfromthosequalities,insofarastheyexistin

the people, that all possibility of any goodness in the practical

operations

ofthegovernmentmustcome.

But though themost importantrequisiteofpolitical institutions

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conditionofthepeopleissuchthatthewitnessesgenerallylie,&

thejudges&theirsubordinatestakebribes?Again,howisitpossible

to

haveagoodmunicipaladministration, if there issuch indifference to

the

subjectthatthepersonswhowouldadministerhonestly&competently

areunwillingtoserve,&thedutiesarelefttothosewhoundertake

themfrommotivesofprivateinterest?Ofwhatavailisthemost

extensivelypopularrepresentativesystem,ifthosewhohavearight

tovotedonot care tochoose the fittestmemberofparliament, but

choose

him who will spend most money to be elected ? How can a

representative

assemblyworkforgoodifitsmembersarebought&sold,oriftheir

excitabilityoftemperamentmakesthemincapableofcalmdeliberation

&theycometoblowsonthefloorofthe

house,orshootatoneanotherwithrifles?How,again,isit

possiblethatgovernmentoranyotherjointconcerncanbewell

carriedon,amongapeoplesoenviousthatifanyoneamongthem

seemslikelytosucceedinanything,thereisimmediatelyaconfederacy

amongthose

whooughttocooperatewithhim,tomakehimfail?When

thegeneraldispositionofthepeopleissuchasleads

eachtoregardonlythoseofhisinterestswhichareselfish&not

todwelluponorconcernhimselfforhisshareofthegeneral

interest,nogoodgovernmentispossible.Ihavespokenonlyofmoral

defects.Defectsofintelligence,&theirinfluencein

obstructingalltheelementsofgoodgovernmentrequirenoillustration.

Allgovernmentconsistsofactsdonebymen;&ifthemenwho

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this

doesnotexhaustalltheirexcellence

forgoodgovernmentdepends,notsolelyontheamountofgoodqualities

inthepeople,butinaconsiderabledegreealsoonthequalityofthe

arrangementsforbringingthosequalitiesinthepeople

tobearontheactsofgovernment,&making

themdulyoperativeontheresult.Itisthisthatconstitutesthe

chiefimportanceofwhatmaybecalledthemachineryofgovernment.

Takeagainforillustrationtheadministrationofjustice.Thegoodness

of

this is in thecompoundratioof theworthof themencomposing the

tribunals&theworth&

thepublicopinionwhichcontrolsthem.Butallthe

differencebetweenagood&abadsystemofjudicatureliesinthe

contrivances adopted for making whatever worth exists in the

community

［A_024verso.blank］

B_001

B

operativeontheadministrationofjustice.Thearrangements,whatever

theymay

be,formakingthechoiceofthejudgessuchastoobtainthehighest

averageofvirtue&intelligence;thesalutaryforms

ofprocedure:thepublicitywhichensuresobservation&criticismof

whatever isamiss : the libertyofdiscussion&censure through the

press,

themodeoftakingevidence,accordingasitiswellorilladaptedtothe

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elicityof truth ; the facilities,whatever theymaybe, forobtaining

access

tothetribunals:thearrangementsforapprehendingoffenders;

all,inshort,whichmaybecalledthemachineryofjudicature,

aidsimplythemeanstakenforobtainingasgood

anadministrationofjusticeasisconsistentwiththedegreeofvirtue&

intelligenceexistinginthecommunity.Again,agoodsystemof

finance& taxation is themeans taken for rendering thenecessary

expenses

ofgovernmentaslittlemeanstothecommunityasisconsistentwith

thedegreeofintelligence&politywhichitispossibletosecurein

theadministratorofthesystem.Arepresentativeconstitutionisa

meansbywhichitisendeavouredtobringthegeneralpublic

opinionofthecommunity,&theindividualintelligence&virtue

ofitswisestmembers,moredirectlytobearuponthegovernment

&investthemwithgreaterinfluenceinit,thantheywould

haveunderanyothermodeoforganization

allgovernmentwhichaimsatbeinggood,isan

organizationofsomepartofthegoodqualitiesexistinginthe

membersofthecommunity,fortheconductofitscollectiveaffairs;

Thegreatertheamountofthosegoodqualitieswhichitsucceeds

inorganizing,&thebetterthemodeoforganization,thebetterwill

bethegovernment.

Wehavenow,therefore,obtainedtwoheadsbetweenwhich

arationaldecisionmaybemadeofwhattheexcellenceof

B_002

asetofpoliticalinstitutionsconsistsin.Itconsists,first,ofthe

degreeinwhichitpromotesthemoral&intellectualadvancement

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this

doesnotexhaustalltheirexcellence

forgoodgovernmentdepends,notsolelyontheamountofgoodqualities

inthepeople,butinaconsiderabledegreealsoonthequalityofthe

arrangementsforbringingthosequalitiesinthepeople

tobearontheactsofgovernment,&making

themdulyoperativeontheresult.Itisthisthatconstitutesthe

chiefimportanceofwhatmaybecalledthemachineryofgovernment.

Takeagainforillustrationtheadministrationofjustice.Thegoodness

of

this is in thecompoundratioof theworthof themencomposing the

tribunals&theworth&

thepublicopinionwhichcontrolsthem.Butallthe

differencebetweenagood&abadsystemofjudicatureliesinthe

contrivances adopted for making whatever worth exists in the

community

［A_024verso.blank］

B_001

B

operativeontheadministrationofjustice.Thearrangements,whatever

theymay

be,formakingthechoiceofthejudgessuchastoobtainthehighest

averageofvirtue&intelligence;thesalutaryforms

ofprocedure:thepublicitywhichensuresobservation&criticismof

whatever isamiss : the libertyofdiscussion&censure through the

press,

themodeoftakingevidence,accordingasitiswellorilladaptedtothe

（一三八五）

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ofthecommunity,&secondly,ofthedegree

inwhichitsucceedsinorganizingthemoral

&intellectualworthatpresentexistingsoastoexercisethemost

beneficialinfluenceinthemanagementofpublic

affairs.Wemustnotatthesametimesupposethatthesetwokinds

ofefforthavenointimateconnexionwithoneanother.

Theyhave,onthecontrary,theclosest.Theinstitutionswhichsecure

the

bestpracticablemanagementofpublicaffairs in theexistingstateof

moral&intellectual

culture,tendbythatalonetothefurtherimprovement

ofthatstate.Apeoplewhohadthe

mostjustlaws,thepurest&mostefficientadministration

ofjustice,themostenlightenedadministration,thefairest

&leastoneroussystemoffinance,whicharecompatiblewith

itsexistingstateofmoral& intellectualadvancement,couldscarcely

fail

toadvancerapidlyintoahigherstage:

noristhereanymodeinwhichpolitical

institutionscanmorecontributetotheimprovementofthepeople

thanbydoingtheirownmoredirectworkwell;thoughthisis

nottheonlymodeinwhichtheymaycontributetoit.Andonthe

otherhandiftheirmachineryissobadlyconstructedthat

theydotheirownparticularworkill,theeffectisfeltinathousand

waysindeterioratingthemorality&deadeningtheintelligence

&mentalactivityofthepeople.

Aformofgovernment,orsetofpoliticalinstitutions,istobe

considered,then,intwodifferentaspects;ofwhichthefirst&greatest

isthatofitsoperationasanagencyofnationaleducation;theother

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(which isalsooneof themodesof the first) is theefficiencyof its

arrangements

forconductingthecollectiveaffairsofthecommunityin

B_003

thestateofeducationinwhichtheyalreadyare,ofthese

twopartsofitsoperation,the

lastevidentlyvariesmuchless,fromdifferenceofcountry

&ofstateofcivilization,thanthefirst.Ithasevenmuchlesstodo

withthefundamentalconstitutionofthegovernment.Thesamemode

ofconductingthedetailedbusinessofgovernment,whichisgoodin

anabsolutemonarchy,willbegoodinaconstitutionalgovernment,ora

democraticrepublic.

The lawsofproperty, forexample ; theprinciplesofevidences&of

judicial

procedure;themodeoftaxation,&offinancial

administration,neednotnecessarilybedifferentindifferent

formsofgovernment.Eachofthesesubjects

hasprinciples&rulesofitsown,whichareasubjectofseparate

study.Generaljurisprudence,civil&

penallegislation,politicaleconomy,arespecial

sciences,orrather,separatebranchesofthecomprehensivescience

orartofgovernment;&themostenlighteneddoctrinesonallthese

subjectsmightbeunderstood&actedonunderanyformwhatever

ofgovernment;(thoughofcourse,notequallylikelytobeso)

&ifunderstood&actedon,wouldbeequallybeneficialunderall

forms of government. It is true that these doctrines could not be

applied

withoutsomemodificationstoallstatesofsociety&ofthehuman

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ofthecommunity,&secondly,ofthedegree

inwhichitsucceedsinorganizingthemoral

&intellectualworthatpresentexistingsoastoexercisethemost

beneficialinfluenceinthemanagementofpublic

affairs.Wemustnotatthesametimesupposethatthesetwokinds

ofefforthavenointimateconnexionwithoneanother.

Theyhave,onthecontrary,theclosest.Theinstitutionswhichsecure

the

bestpracticablemanagementofpublicaffairs in theexistingstateof

moral&intellectual

culture,tendbythatalonetothefurtherimprovement

ofthatstate.Apeoplewhohadthe

mostjustlaws,thepurest&mostefficientadministration

ofjustice,themostenlightenedadministration,thefairest

&leastoneroussystemoffinance,whicharecompatiblewith

itsexistingstateofmoral& intellectualadvancement,couldscarcely

fail

toadvancerapidlyintoahigherstage:

noristhereanymodeinwhichpolitical

institutionscanmorecontributetotheimprovementofthepeople

thanbydoingtheirownmoredirectworkwell;thoughthisis

nottheonlymodeinwhichtheymaycontributetoit.Andonthe

otherhandiftheirmachineryissobadlyconstructedthat

theydotheirownparticularworkill,theeffectisfeltinathousand

waysindeterioratingthemorality&deadeningtheintelligence

&mentalactivityofthepeople.

Aformofgovernment,orsetofpoliticalinstitutions,istobe

considered,then,intwodifferentaspects;ofwhichthefirst&greatest

isthatofitsoperationasanagencyofnationaleducation;theother

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一一一

mind;nevertheless,byfarthegreaterpartofthemwouldrequire

modificationsofdetailonly,toadaptthemtoanystateofsociety

sufficientlyadvancedtopossessrulerscapableofunderstandingthem.

B_004

Itisotherwisewiththatportionoftheinterestsofthecommunity

whichhavereferencetothebetterorworsetraining

ofthepeoplethemselves.Consideredasinstrumentaltothis,

institutionsrequiretoberadically

different, in different states of society, according to the state of

advancement

whichhasalreadybeenreached.Inall

statesofhumanimprovementexcepttheveryhighest,thenature&

degreeoftheauthoritywhichisexercisedoverhumanbeingsisthe

mostpowerfulofallinfluences,excepttheirreligious

belief,whichunitetomakethemwhattheyare.

Thestateofdifferent

communities,inpointofculture&development,rangesdownwardstoa

condition littleabove thehighestof thebeasts ;which itsupwards

finishes

undoubtedlyshortof themostelevatedwhich isconsistentwith the

natureofman

&thegeneralconditionsofhumanexistence.Acommunitycan

onlybedevelopedoutofoneofthesestatesintoabetter&

higher,byaconcourseofinfluences,oneoftheprincipal

ofwhichisthegovernmenttowhichitissubject;&thegreatest

meritwhichagovernmentcanpossess,ameritinfavourof

whichitoughttobeforgivenforanyamountofother

demerits,isthatitsoperationonthepeopleisfavourable,ornot

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unfavourable,tothenextstepwhichitisnecessaryforthemtotake

inordertoraisethemselvestoahigherlevel.

Forexample,apeopleinastateofsavageindependence

inwhicheveryonelivesforhimself,

exempt,unlessbyfits,fromanyexternal

control-suchapeopleispracticallyincapableofmakingany

progressincivilizationuntilithasfirstlearnttoobey.

Theoneindispensablevirtue,therefore,inagovernment,

whichestablishesitselfoverapeopleofthissort,isthatitmakes

itselfbeobeyed.Forthispurposeitisnecessarythattheformof

B_005

governmentbenearly,orquite,despotic.Aconstitutioninanydegree

popular,onewhichdependsonvoluntaryobedience,onthesurrenderby

thedifferentmembersofthecommunity,oftheir

individualfreedomofaction,wouldfailto

enforcetheonelessonwhichthepupils,inthis

stateof theirprogress,require.Accordingly thecivilizationofsuch

tribes

isalwaystheworkofanabsoluteruler,derivinghispowereither

fromreligion,fromapersonalsuperiorityfeltasequivalentto

superhuman,orfromforeignarms.

Again,apeopleofslavesareinapositiononedegreeinadvance

of this.Theyhavenot this first lessonof political society still to

acquire.

Theyhavelearnttoobey.Butwhattheyobeyisonly

adirectcommand.Theycannotconfirmtheirconducttoarule

orlaw.Theycanonlydowhat,&when,theyareordered

todo.Ifamanwhomtheyfearisstandingoverthem&threatening

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mind;nevertheless,byfarthegreaterpartofthemwouldrequire

modificationsofdetailonly,toadaptthemtoanystateofsociety

sufficientlyadvancedtopossessrulerscapableofunderstandingthem.

B_004

Itisotherwisewiththatportionoftheinterestsofthecommunity

whichhavereferencetothebetterorworsetraining

ofthepeoplethemselves.Consideredasinstrumentaltothis,

institutionsrequiretoberadically

different, in different states of society, according to the state of

advancement

whichhasalreadybeenreached.Inall

statesofhumanimprovementexcepttheveryhighest,thenature&

degreeoftheauthoritywhichisexercisedoverhumanbeingsisthe

mostpowerfulofallinfluences,excepttheirreligious

belief,whichunitetomakethemwhattheyare.

Thestateofdifferent

communities,inpointofculture&development,rangesdownwardstoa

condition littleabove thehighestof thebeasts ;which itsupwards

finishes

undoubtedlyshortof themostelevatedwhich isconsistentwith the

natureofman

&thegeneralconditionsofhumanexistence.Acommunitycan

onlybedevelopedoutofoneofthesestatesintoabetter&

higher,byaconcourseofinfluences,oneoftheprincipal

ofwhichisthegovernmenttowhichitissubject;&thegreatest

meritwhichagovernmentcanpossess,ameritinfavourof

whichitoughttobeforgivenforanyamountofother

demerits,isthatitsoperationonthepeopleisfavourable,ornot

（一三八一）

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themwithpunishment,theyobey.Butifhisbackisturned

theworkremainsundone.Themotivedeterminingthemmust

beadirectappealtotheirinstincts:immediatehopesor

immediateterror.Itisnotadespotismwhichthesepeoplewant.

Theironlyroadtoimprovement,isbybeingraisedfromagovernment

ofwilltooneoflaw:self-governmentiswhattheyhavetolearn;

itmustnotbeagovernmentofforce,butoneofpersuasion.

Butastheyareintoolowastatetoyieldtothepersuasionofany

butthosetowhomtheylookupasthepossessorsofforce,thesortof

governmentforthemisonewhichhasforcebutseldomusesit,asort

of

paternaldespotismoraristocracy,

somethingliketheSt.Simonianformofsocialism

maintainingageneralsuperintendance［sic］overalltheoperationsof

society, soas tokeepbeforeeach theknowledgeofapresent force

sufficient

tocompelhisobediencetotherulelaiddownforhim,but

owingtotheimpossibilityofdescendingtoregulatealloftheminutiae

of

B_006

industry&life,necessarilyleaving&inducingindividualsto

domuchfor&bythemselves,&

sincetheyareincapableofdoinganythingbutobeycommands

tolearnatleasttoobeygeneralcommandsinsteadofrequiring

particularones.

Thisseemsthegovernmentbestcalculatedtocarry

suchapeoplethroughthenextnecessarystepinhuman

progress.Suchappearstohavebeenthegeneralideaofthe

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governmentoftheIncasofPeru;&suchwasthatoftheJesuits

inParaguay.

Ishallnotcarrytheillustrationfurther.Toattempt

topointoutwhatgovernmentissuitedtoeveryknown

stateofsociety,wouldbetowriteatreatisenotonrepresentative

government,butonpoliticalscienceatlarge.Forourmore

limitedpurposeweborrowfrompoliticalphilosophyonlyitsgeneral

principles.Thegeneralprinciplewhichdetermines

theformofgovernmentsuitedtoanyparticularpeople,istolerably

obvious.Itisnecessarytounderstand,amongallthedefectsand

shortcomingswhichbelongtothatpeople,whatarethosethat

aretheimmediatebarriertoprogress;what,inshort,itiswhich

stopstheway.Whenweknowthis,then,theformof

governmentwhichwillmostcertainlygivethemthat,forwantofwhich

they

cannotmoveforward,isthebestgovernmentforthem:with

thereservationnecessaryinallthingswhicharedoneforthe

sakeofimprovement,orProgress;viz.thatingivingthemthegood

whichtheyneed,nodamage,oraslittleaspossible,bedoneto

thatwhichtheyalreadypossess.Apeopleofsavagesmustbetaught

toobey,buttheyshouldnotbetaughtthatlessoninsuchamanner

as to convert them into a people of slaves.And (to give to this

observation

B_007

astillhigherdegreeofgenerality) the formofgovernmentwhich is

most

effectualforcarryingapeoplethroughthenextstageintheroadof

improvement,willstillbeveryunfitforthemifitdoesthisin

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themwithpunishment,theyobey.Butifhisbackisturned

theworkremainsundone.Themotivedeterminingthemmust

beadirectappealtotheirinstincts:immediatehopesor

immediateterror.Itisnotadespotismwhichthesepeoplewant.

Theironlyroadtoimprovement,isbybeingraisedfromagovernment

ofwilltooneoflaw:self-governmentiswhattheyhavetolearn;

itmustnotbeagovernmentofforce,butoneofpersuasion.

Butastheyareintoolowastatetoyieldtothepersuasionofany

butthosetowhomtheylookupasthepossessorsofforce,thesortof

governmentforthemisonewhichhasforcebutseldomusesit,asort

of

paternaldespotismoraristocracy,

somethingliketheSt.Simonianformofsocialism

maintainingageneralsuperintendance［sic］overalltheoperationsof

society, soas tokeepbeforeeach theknowledgeofapresent force

sufficient

tocompelhisobediencetotherulelaiddownforhim,but

owingtotheimpossibilityofdescendingtoregulatealloftheminutiae

of

B_006

industry&life,necessarilyleaving&inducingindividualsto

domuchfor&bythemselves,&

sincetheyareincapableofdoinganythingbutobeycommands

tolearnatleasttoobeygeneralcommandsinsteadofrequiring

particularones.

Thisseemsthegovernmentbestcalculatedtocarry

suchapeoplethroughthenextnecessarystepinhuman

progress.Suchappearstohavebeenthegeneralideaofthe

（一三七九）

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一〇七

suchamannerastoobstruct,orpositivelyunfitthemfor,the

stepnextinorder.Thisevilhasoftenbeenfeltinhistory.The

Egyptianhierarchy,theChinesedespotism,wereveryfitinstruments

forcarryingthosenationsuptothepointofcivilizationwhichthey

attained.Theywerestoppedat

thatpointforwantofmentalliberty,&individuality;which

requisitesofimprovementtheinstitutionswhichhadcarried

themthusfar,entirelyincapacitatedthemforacquiring:

&astheinstitutionsdidnotbreakdown&giveplaceto

others,improvementnecessarilystopped［Inpencil］Jewsdifferent

Sincethenitisimpossibletodecideonthe

adaptationofformsofgovernmenttostatesofsocietywithout

takingintoaccountnotonlythenextstepbutallthestepswhich

societyhasyettomake,sofarasthesearecapableofbeing

atpresentknown;theprocessbecomesevidentlywhich

mighttogovernallattemptstojudgeofthemeritsofforms

ofgovernment.Itisnecessarytoconstructanidealoftheform

ofgovernmentwhichisbestinitself,thatis,which

ifthenecessaryconditionsexistedforcarrying

outitsbeneficialtendencies,wouldfavour&promoteallforms

&degreesofprogress.Havingdeterminedthis,wehavenextto

considerwhatarethemental&moralconditionsnecessaryto

enablethisgovernmenttorealizeitstendencies,&whatconsequently

areallthevariousdefectswhichareliabletorenderany

peopleincapableofreapingitsbenefits.Weshallthenbeable

toconstructatheoremofthecasesinwhich

B_008

thatgovernmentmaywiselybeintroduced,&

（一三七七）

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alsotojudge,incaseswhereithadbetternotbeintroduced,

whatinferiorformsofpolityarebestadaptedtocarry

thosecommunitiesthroughtheintermediatestageswhichtheymust

traverseinordertobecomefitforthatformofgovernment.

Oftheseinquiriesthelastdoesnotconcernushere;but

thefirstformsanessentialpartofoursubject:forwemay,

withoutrashness,enunciateaboveaproposition

theproofs&illustrationsofwhichwillpresent

themselvesabundantlyintheensuingpages,viz.thatthisideally

bestformofgovernmentwillcertainlybefoundin

someoneorothervarietyoftheRepresentative

System.

B_009toB_022.［Chapter3］

B_009

Thattheideallybestformofgovernmentisrepresentativegovernment

Ithasbeenlong,perhapsthroughouttheentiredurationof

Britishfreedom,acommonformofspeech,thatif itwerepossibleto

ensurea

gooddespot,despoticmonarchywouldbethebestformofgovernment.

Ilook

uponthisdoctrineasimplyingaradicalmisconceptionofwhatgood

governmentis,whichcannotbetoostrenuouslycontendedagainst.

Theideaasthebottomofthisnotion,mustbethat

absolutepower,inthehandsofaneminentindividual,wouldensure

avirtuous&intelligentperformanceofeveryoneofthedutieswhich

（一三七六）

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一〇七

suchamannerastoobstruct,orpositivelyunfitthemfor,the

stepnextinorder.Thisevilhasoftenbeenfeltinhistory.The

Egyptianhierarchy,theChinesedespotism,wereveryfitinstruments

forcarryingthosenationsuptothepointofcivilizationwhichthey

attained.Theywerestoppedat

thatpointforwantofmentalliberty,&individuality;which

requisitesofimprovementtheinstitutionswhichhadcarried

themthusfar,entirelyincapacitatedthemforacquiring:

&astheinstitutionsdidnotbreakdown&giveplaceto

others,improvementnecessarilystopped［Inpencil］Jewsdifferent

Sincethenitisimpossibletodecideonthe

adaptationofformsofgovernmenttostatesofsocietywithout

takingintoaccountnotonlythenextstepbutallthestepswhich

societyhasyettomake,sofarasthesearecapableofbeing

atpresentknown;theprocessbecomesevidentlywhich

mighttogovernallattemptstojudgeofthemeritsofforms

ofgovernment.Itisnecessarytoconstructanidealoftheform

ofgovernmentwhichisbestinitself,thatis,which

ifthenecessaryconditionsexistedforcarrying

outitsbeneficialtendencies,wouldfavour&promoteallforms

&degreesofprogress.Havingdeterminedthis,wehavenextto

considerwhatarethemental&moralconditionsnecessaryto

enablethisgovernmenttorealizeitstendencies,&whatconsequently

areallthevariousdefectswhichareliabletorenderany

peopleincapableofreapingitsbenefits.Weshallthenbeable

toconstructatheoremofthecasesinwhich

B_008

thatgovernmentmaywiselybeintroduced,&

（一三七七）

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devolveonagovernment.Goodlawswouldberespected&obeyed,bad

laws

wouldbereformed;thebestmenwouldbeplacedinallsituationsof

trust;justice,therefore,wouldbeaswelladministered,thepublic

burthenswouldbeaslight,&asjudiciouslyimposed,everybranch

ofadministrationwouldbeaspurely,&intelligentlyconducted,as

thecircumstancesofthecountry,&thepointwhichithadreached

inintellectual&moraladvancement,wouldadmit.

Iamwilling for thesakeof theargument toconcedeall this ;but I

must

at the same time call attention to the vast amount ofwhat I am

conceding;

howmuchmore isneeded toproduceevenanapproximation to this

result,

thanisconveyedinthesimpleexpression,agooddespot.Infact,what

wouldbeneededtorealizesuchapictureisnotsimplyagoodmonarch,

butanallseeingone.Hemustbeabletobecorrectlyinformedofthe

conduct&workingofeverybranchofadministration,ineverypartof

country（ 4 ）toitsminutedetails;

hemustbecapable,inthe24hoursperdaywhichareallthatis（ 5 ）

toaKingastothehumblestlabourer,ofgivingashareofattention&

superintendance［sic］toeverypartof thisvast field ;orhemustbe

capableat

hiselevation,ofdiscerning&selecting,amongthemassofhissubjects,

notonly

alargeabundanceofhonest&capablemen,fittomanage

everybranchofthepublicserviceofanationunder

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B_010

supervision&control,butthesmallnumberofmenofeminent

virtues& talentswho can be trusted not only to dowithout that

supervision

but to exercise it themselves over others.So superhumanare the

faculties&

energies required for this task that the gooddespotwhomweare

supposingcan

hardlybeimaginedasconsentingtoundertakeit,unlessasarefuge

from intolerable evils,& a transitional preparation for something

better.But

myargumentcanaffordtowaveeventhisvastitemintheaccount,&to

suppressthedifficultyvanquished.Whatshouldwethenhave?

Onemanofsuperhumanmentalactivitymanagingtheentireaffairs

ofamentallypassivepeople.Thisisimpliedintheveryidea&absolute

power.Thepeoplecollectively,&everysuchindividual

composingit,arewithoutanypotentialvoiceintheirowndestiny.They

exercisenowill in respect to thecollectivebusinessof life.All is

decided

forthembyawillnottheirown,&whichitislegallyacrimeforthem

to

resistordisobey.Whatsortofhumanbeingscanpossiblybeformed

undersuch

aregimen ?Whatdevelopmentcaneither the thinkingor theactive

faculties

attain?Onmattersofpuretheorytheymightpossiblybeallowedto

speculate.

Onpracticalaffairstheycouldatmostonlybesufferedtosuggest;&

none

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devolveonagovernment.Goodlawswouldberespected&obeyed,bad

laws

wouldbereformed;thebestmenwouldbeplacedinallsituationsof

trust;justice,therefore,wouldbeaswelladministered,thepublic

burthenswouldbeaslight,&asjudiciouslyimposed,everybranch

ofadministrationwouldbeaspurely,&intelligentlyconducted,as

thecircumstancesofthecountry,&thepointwhichithadreached

inintellectual&moraladvancement,wouldadmit.

Iamwilling for thesakeof theargument toconcedeall this ;but I

must

at the same time call attention to the vast amount ofwhat I am

conceding;

howmuchmore isneeded toproduceevenanapproximation to this

result,

thanisconveyedinthesimpleexpression,agooddespot.Infact,what

wouldbeneededtorealizesuchapictureisnotsimplyagoodmonarch,

butanallseeingone.Hemustbeabletobecorrectlyinformedofthe

conduct&workingofeverybranchofadministration,ineverypartof

country（ 4 ）toitsminutedetails;

hemustbecapable,inthe24hoursperdaywhichareallthatis（ 5 ）

toaKingastothehumblestlabourer,ofgivingashareofattention&

superintendance［sic］toeverypartof thisvast field ;orhemustbe

capableat

hiselevation,ofdiscerning&selecting,amongthemassofhissubjects,

notonly

alargeabundanceofhonest&capablemen,fittomanage

everybranchofthepublicserviceofanationunder

（一三七五）

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butpersonsofrealorreputedsuperiorityofinstitution&（ 6 ）ever

couldflatterthemselvesthattheirsuggestionswouldbeevenknownto

muchlessattendedtoby,thosewhohadthemanagementofaffairs.

Apersonmusthaveaveryunusualtasteforintellectualexercisein&

for itself,whowillputhimself to the troubleof thoughtwhich is to

haveno

effectonpractice,orqualifyhimself for functionswhichhehasno

chance

ofevenbeingallowed toexercise.Theonlysufficient incitement to

mental

exertion, inanybutafewpersons inageneration, is theprospectof

some

practicaluse tobemadeof its results. It doesnot follow that the

nation

mustbedevisedof intellectualpower.Theordinarybusinessof life,

that

whichmustbeperformedbyeachindividualorfamilyforitself,is

sufficient to call fortha certainamountof intelligence&practical

talent.

B_011

［Leftsideofpage.Bquire010verso.Inpencil］

Thenhowallthementalpowerinthecountrymaybeorganized

insomespecialdirection(asthatofconquest)byadespot.

［Rightsideofpage.Bquire011recto.］

Butsuchapeoplewillbeentirelydevoidofanywiderangeof ideas.

There

maybeaselectclassofsavantswhocultivatescienceforitsownsake.

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一〇二

There

willbeabureaucracy,&aclassbroughtupforthebureaucracy,who

willbetaughtatleastsomeempiricalmaximsofgovernment

&political administration.Theremainderof thepublicwill remain

without

information&withoutinterestinallthelargeraffairsofhumanity:or

if

theyhaveanyknowledgeofthematall,itwillbeamerely

dilettanteknowledge,likethatwhichpeoplehaveofthemechanicalarts

whohaveneverhandledatool.Fromthisinherentnecessityofdespotic

governmentthereisnooutletunlessinsofarasthedespotismconsents

not tobeadespotism ; inso faras thesupposedgood&willdespot

repairs

fortheexerciseofhispower,&thoughholdingit

inreserve,allowsthegeneralbusinessofgovernmenttogoonasifthe

people

reallygovernedthemselves.Wemay imaginehimallowingfreedomof

the

press&ofthepublicdiscussion,thatapublicopinionmightformitself

freelyonnationalaffairs.Hemightallowlocalintereststobemanaged

withoutthecontrolofgovernment,bythepeoplethemselves.Hemight

evensurroundhimselfbyacouncilorcouncilsofgovernmentof

thenatureofarepresentativeassembly,freelychosenbythewholeor

someportionofthepeople;stillholdinginhisownhandsthe

poweroftaxation,&thesupremelegislative

aswell as executive power.Were he to do all this& thus far to

obedient

asadespot,hewoulddoaway,inequaldegree,withthecharacteristic

evilsofadespotism.Politicalactivity,&capacityforpublic

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butpersonsofrealorreputedsuperiorityofinstitution&（ 6 ）ever

couldflatterthemselvesthattheirsuggestionswouldbeevenknownto

muchlessattendedtoby,thosewhohadthemanagementofaffairs.

Apersonmusthaveaveryunusualtasteforintellectualexercisein&

for itself,whowillputhimself to the troubleof thoughtwhich is to

haveno

effectonpractice,orqualifyhimself for functionswhichhehasno

chance

ofevenbeingallowed toexercise.Theonlysufficient incitement to

mental

exertion, inanybutafewpersons inageneration, is theprospectof

some

practicaluse tobemadeof its results. It doesnot follow that the

nation

mustbedevisedof intellectualpower.Theordinarybusinessof life,

that

whichmustbeperformedbyeachindividualorfamilyforitself,is

sufficient to call fortha certainamountof intelligence&practical

talent.

B_011

［Leftsideofpage.Bquire010verso.Inpencil］

Thenhowallthementalpowerinthecountrymaybeorganized

insomespecialdirection(asthatofconquest)byadespot.

［Rightsideofpage.Bquire011recto.］

Butsuchapeoplewillbeentirelydevoidofanywiderangeof ideas.

There

maybeaselectclassofsavantswhocultivatescienceforitsownsake.

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affairs,wouldbenolongerpreventedfromgrowingupinthebodyof

thepeople;&apublicopinionwouldformitself,notthe

mereechoofthegovernment.Butwiththisbeginnewdifficulties.

Thispublicopinion,independentofthemonarch,dictationmustbe

eitherwithhimoragainsthim:ifitisnottheone,itwillbetheother.

B_012

［Leftsideofpage.Bquire011verso.］

’λThedespotismbeingthenchieflynominal,wouldpossessveryfewof

theadvantagessupposedtobelongtoabsolutemonarchy;whichitcould

only

realizeinanimperfectdegreethebenefitsofafreegovernment,since

howevergreatanamountoflibertythecitizensmightpracticallyenjoy

theywouldneverforgetthattheyhelditonsufferance&bya

concessionwhich,iftheconstitutionofthestateremained

inviolate,mightanydayberesumed.

［Rightsideofpage.Bquire012recto.］

Allgovernmentsmustdispleasemanypersons,&thosepersonshaving

now

regularorgans&permissiontoexpresstheirsentiments

opinions adverse to the measures of government will often be

expressed.

Whatisthemonarchtodoiftheseunfavourableopinionsarein

themajority?Ishetoalterhiscourse?Ishetodefertothemajority?

Ifso

heisnolongeradespot,butaconstitutionalking;

apermanent&immovableorganorprimeministerofthepeople.Ifnot

hemusteitherputdowntheoppositionbythearmofpower,orthere

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willariseapermanentantagonismbetweenapeople&oneman

which can have but one possible ending. It is doubtful if even a

religious

principleofpassiveobedience“rightdivine”would（ 7 ）againstsuch

aposition.Themonarchwouldhavetosuccumb,&conformtothe

conditions of constitutional royalty, orgiveplace to someonewho

would.’λ

I am far from condemning, in cases of great exigency, the

assumptions

ofdespoticpowerintheformofatemporarydictatorship.Freenations

haveoften,intimesofold,conferredsuchpowerbytheirownchoice,

（ 8 ）it.Theonlyeffectualmedicinefor

diseasesofthebodypoliticwhichcouldnotbegotridofby

lessviolentmeans.Butitsacceptance,evenforatimestrictlylimited

muchmoreforanindefiniteduration,canonlybejustified,orever

excused,if,likeSolonorPittacus,thedespotemploysthewholeofthe

powerheassumesinremovingtheobstacleswhichexcludethecountry

fromtheenjoymentoffreedom.Agooddespotismisanaltogetherfalse

ideal,whichpracticallybecomesthemostsenseless&dangerousof

Chimeras.Evilforevil,agooddespotisminacountryatalladvanced

incivilizationismoremischievousthanabadone,foritisfarmore

relaxing&enervating to the thoughts, feelings,& energies of the

people.

ItwasthedespotismofAugustuswhichpreparedtheRomans

forTiberius.Ifthewholetoneoftheirmind&characterhadnot

B_013

beenprostratedby

thatmildslavery,theywouldhavehadspiritenoughleft

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affairs,wouldbenolongerpreventedfromgrowingupinthebodyof

thepeople;&apublicopinionwouldformitself,notthe

mereechoofthegovernment.Butwiththisbeginnewdifficulties.

Thispublicopinion,independentofthemonarch,dictationmustbe

eitherwithhimoragainsthim:ifitisnottheone,itwillbetheother.

B_012

［Leftsideofpage.Bquire011verso.］

’λThedespotismbeingthenchieflynominal,wouldpossessveryfewof

theadvantagessupposedtobelongtoabsolutemonarchy;whichitcould

only

realizeinanimperfectdegreethebenefitsofafreegovernment,since

howevergreatanamountoflibertythecitizensmightpracticallyenjoy

theywouldneverforgetthattheyhelditonsufferance&bya

concessionwhich,iftheconstitutionofthestateremained

inviolate,mightanydayberesumed.

［Rightsideofpage.Bquire012recto.］

Allgovernmentsmustdispleasemanypersons,&thosepersonshaving

now

regularorgans&permissiontoexpresstheirsentiments

opinions adverse to the measures of government will often be

expressed.

Whatisthemonarchtodoiftheseunfavourableopinionsarein

themajority?Ishetoalterhiscourse?Ishetodefertothemajority?

Ifso

heisnolongeradespot,butaconstitutionalking;

apermanent&immovableorganorprimeministerofthepeople.Ifnot

hemusteitherputdowntheoppositionbythearmofpower,orthere

（一三七一）

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nottoendurethemoreodiousone.

Weshallfindthattheideallybestformofgovernmentisthatin

whichthesovereignty,orsupremecontrollingpowerinthelastresort,

resides

intheentireaggregateofthecommunity,&inwhicheveryindividualin

ithasnotonlyavoiceintheexerciseofthatultimatesovereignty,but

is,atleastoccasionally,calledontotakeanactualpartinthe

government, by the personal discharge of somepublic function or

functions.

Totestthispropositionitmustbeexaminedinreferencetothe

twobranchesintowhich,aswasshowninthelastchapter,theinquiring

intothegoodnessofagovernmentconvenientlydividesitself,viz.how

far

it promotes the goodmanagement of the affairs of society in the

existing

states of the faculties,moral, intellectual& active of its various

members

&whatisitseffectinimprovingordeterioratingthatstate.

Itwillberemembered,thatIamnothereconcernedinshowing

thatacompletelypopulargovernmentisalwayspracticablethat

whichwilleithersecurethegreatestamountofbenefitconsistent

withtheexistingstateofthegeneralmind,orwilltendmostto

theimprovementofthatstate.Neitherofthesepropositionswouldbe

universallytrue.WhatImaintainis,thatitisideallythebest

that is to say, that in thecircumstancessuitable to it, (or inother

words

whenitfulfilsthethreefundamentalconditions)itisattendedwith

greateramountofbeneficialconsequencesofbothkinds,it

ismorefavourabletopresentgoodgovernment

（一三六九）

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九八

&promotesabetter&higherformofcharacterinthe

communitywhichpartakesofit,thananyotherformofgovernment

whatever.

Itssuperiorityinregardtotheattainment

of the greatest amount of presentwellbeing compatiblewith the

existing

B_014

［Leftsideofpage.Bquire013verso.Inpencil］

ExaminetheBenthamdoctrine?

［Rightsideofpage.Bquire014recto.］

mental conditionof thecommunity, restsupon twoprinciples, of as

universal

truth& applicability as any propositionswhich can be laid down

respecting

humanaffairs.Thefirstis,thattherights&interestsofeveryorany

person

areonlysecurefrombeingoverlooked,whenthepersoninterested

ishimselfable,&habituallydisposed,tostandupforthem.Thesecond

is

thatthegeneralprosperityattainsthegreatestheight,&is themost

widely

diffused,inproportiontotheamount&varietyofthepersonalenergies

which

areenlistedinthepromotionofit.B

Putting these two propositions into a shapemore peculiarly

appropriate

toourpresentsubject;humanbeingsareonlysecure

（一三六八）

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nottoendurethemoreodiousone.

Weshallfindthattheideallybestformofgovernmentisthatin

whichthesovereignty,orsupremecontrollingpowerinthelastresort,

resides

intheentireaggregateofthecommunity,&inwhicheveryindividualin

ithasnotonlyavoiceintheexerciseofthatultimatesovereignty,but

is,atleastoccasionally,calledontotakeanactualpartinthe

government, by the personal discharge of somepublic function or

functions.

Totestthispropositionitmustbeexaminedinreferencetothe

twobranchesintowhich,aswasshowninthelastchapter,theinquiring

intothegoodnessofagovernmentconvenientlydividesitself,viz.how

far

it promotes the goodmanagement of the affairs of society in the

existing

states of the faculties,moral, intellectual& active of its various

members

&whatisitseffectinimprovingordeterioratingthatstate.

Itwillberemembered,thatIamnothereconcernedinshowing

thatacompletelypopulargovernmentisalwayspracticablethat

whichwilleithersecurethegreatestamountofbenefitconsistent

withtheexistingstateofthegeneralmind,orwilltendmostto

theimprovementofthatstate.Neitherofthesepropositionswouldbe

universallytrue.WhatImaintainis,thatitisideallythebest

that is to say, that in thecircumstancessuitable to it, (or inother

words

whenitfulfilsthethreefundamentalconditions)itisattendedwith

greateramountofbeneficialconsequencesofbothkinds,it

ismorefavourabletopresentgoodgovernment

（一三六九）

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againstevilatthehandsofothersinproportionastheyhavethe

powerofbeing,&are, self-protecting ;& theyonlyachieveahigh

amount

ofsuccessintheirstrugglewithnature,inproportionasthey

areself-dependent,&relyonwhattheythemselvescando,noton

whatothersdoforthem.

Fromthesetwoprinciplesitarisesthatallfreestates,whether

greatorsmall,havebothbeenfreerfromsocialinjustice

&crime,&haveattainedfarmorebrilliantprosperity

thananyothers,orthanthemselvesaftertheyhavelosttheirfreedom.

Allfreestates,providedtheyhavebeenabletoremainfree,have

beenbothbettergoverned&moreprosperousthanthecontemporary

subjectsofmonarchicaloroligarchicaldespotism.

TheGreekcitiescomparedwiththePersiansatrapies,theItalian

republic&thefreetownsofFlanders&Germanycomparedwith

thefeudalmonarchiesofEurope,Switzerland,Holland&England

comparedwithAustriaorante-revolutionaryFrance,arecases

too evident to require insisting on.The superiorprosperity is too

obvious

tohaveeverbeendenied;thesuperiorityingovernment

B_015

&socialconditionissufficientlyprovedbytheprosperity,&ismanifest

besides in everypageof history. Ifwe compare, not one agewith

another

but thegovernmentswhichcoexisted in thesameage,noamountof

disorder

&insecuritywhichexaggerationitselfcanmaintaintohaveexisted

inthepublicityofthefreestatesofformeragescanbecomparedfora

（一三六七）

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九六

momentwith

theodioustramplinguponthemassofthepeople

whichpervadedthewholelifeofthemonarchical

statesorwiththeterrible&disgustingindividualtyrannywhich

wasofdailyoccurrenceundertheirfiscalarrangements&inthe

securingoftheirfrightfulcourtsofjustice.

Itmustbeacknowledgedthatthesebenefitsoffreedom,sofar

astheyhavebeenrealized,wereobtainedbytheextensionofthe

privileges of freedom to a part only of the community ;& that a

government

inwhichtheyareextendedimpartiallytoall,isadesideratumstill

unrealized.Butthougheveryapproachtoithasanindependent

value,&inmanycasesmorethananapproachcouldnotin

the existing state of general improvement, be made, yet the

participation

ofallinthosebenefitsistheideallyperfectformoffreegovernment.

Inproportionasanyareexcludedfromit,theinterestsoftheexcluded

arewithoutthedegreeofprotectionaccordedtotherest

&theythemselveshavelessscopefor,&lessencouragementto

thatindividualcautionforthebenefitofthemselves&ofthecommunity

towhichthegeneralprosperityisalwaysproportioned.

Thusstandsthecaseasitregardspresentwellbeing:thegood

management of the affairs of the existing generation. Ifwe next

considerthe

influenceofthegovernmentonhumancharacter,weshallfindthe

superiorityofpopulargovernmentovereveryother tobestillmore

decided

&unquestionable.

Inconsideringthisquestionitisnecessarytomakeupourminds

（一三六六）

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againstevilatthehandsofothersinproportionastheyhavethe

powerofbeing,&are, self-protecting ;& theyonlyachieveahigh

amount

ofsuccessintheirstrugglewithnature,inproportionasthey

areself-dependent,&relyonwhattheythemselvescando,noton

whatothersdoforthem.

Fromthesetwoprinciplesitarisesthatallfreestates,whether

greatorsmall,havebothbeenfreerfromsocialinjustice

&crime,&haveattainedfarmorebrilliantprosperity

thananyothers,orthanthemselvesaftertheyhavelosttheirfreedom.

Allfreestates,providedtheyhavebeenabletoremainfree,have

beenbothbettergoverned&moreprosperousthanthecontemporary

subjectsofmonarchicaloroligarchicaldespotism.

TheGreekcitiescomparedwiththePersiansatrapies,theItalian

republic&thefreetownsofFlanders&Germanycomparedwith

thefeudalmonarchiesofEurope,Switzerland,Holland&England

comparedwithAustriaorante-revolutionaryFrance,arecases

too evident to require insisting on.The superiorprosperity is too

obvious

tohaveeverbeendenied;thesuperiorityingovernment

B_015

&socialconditionissufficientlyprovedbytheprosperity,&ismanifest

besides in everypageof history. Ifwe compare, not one agewith

another

but thegovernmentswhichcoexisted in thesameage,noamountof

disorder

&insecuritywhichexaggerationitselfcanmaintaintohaveexisted

inthepublicityofthefreestatesofformeragescanbecomparedfora

（一三六七）

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whichoftwocommontypesofcharacteristhatwhich,forthegeneral

B_016

goodofhumanity,itismostdesirableshouldprevail;theactive,orthe

passivetype;thatwhichstrugglesagainstevils,orthatwhichendures

them;

thatwhichbendstocircumstances,orthatwhichendeavourstobend

circumstancestoitself.

It is evident enough that neither of these types is separately

perfect

: that thecharactersofeachrequire tobemoreor lessmodifiedby

thoseofthe

other.Thereareinevitableevilsineverylot;&thereareavoidable,&

remediableones.Itisafaulttobeimpatientundertheformer;&it

isafault,thoughofanotherkind,tobepatientunderthelatter.

The commonplaces ofmoralists& the general sympathies of

mankind

areinfavourofthepassivetype.

Energeticcharacters,maybeadmiredbuttheacquiescent&submissive

arethosewhich

menpersonallyprefer.

Thepassivenessofourneighboursseemstoplayintothehands

ofourownactivity.Passivecharactersarelessofan

obstructioninourownway.Acontentedcharacterisnotaformidable

rival.Yetnothingismorecertainthanthatimprovement

inhumanaffairsiswhollytheworkofthenon-contented

characters;&moreoverthatitismucheasierfortheactive

mindtoacquirethevirtuesofpatience,thanforthepassiveoneto

acquirethoseofenergy

（一三六五）

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九四

Ofthethreevarietiesofmentalexcellence,intellectual,

active,&moral,therenevercouldbeanydoubtinregard

tothetwofirstonwhichsidelaythepreponderance［sic］.Intellectual

superiority

ofallkinds is the fruitof theactiveexertion.Enterprise, theeager

desireto

betterourcondition,isthesauceoftalent,evenspeculativemuchmore

practical.Theintellectualculturewhichgoeswiththeothertype,isof

that feeble&vaguedescriptionwhichalone iscalledforth inamind

which

stopsatamusement,oratsimplecontemplation.Thereisnotestofreal

&vigorousthinkingofthatwhichascertainstruthsinsteadofdreaming

dreamsbutsuccessfulapplicationtopractice;&wherethat

purposedoesnotexisttogivedefiniteness&precision

tothought,itproducesnothingbetterthanthemysticalmetaphysicsof

B_017

the Pythagoreans or the Veds［sic］.With respect to practical

improvementthecase

isstillmoreobvious.Thecharacterwhichimproveshumanlifeisthat

whichstruggleswithnaturalpowers&tendencies,notthatwhichgives

way

tothem.Theself-benefittingqualitiesareallonthesideoftheactive

&

energeticcharacter;&thehabits&conductwhichpromotethe

advantageofeachindividualmemberofthecommunity,are

thosewhichconducemostintheendtotheadvancementofthe

communityasawhole.

Butonthepointofmoralpreferability,thereseemsatfirstsight

（一三六四）

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whichoftwocommontypesofcharacteristhatwhich,forthegeneral

B_016

goodofhumanity,itismostdesirableshouldprevail;theactive,orthe

passivetype;thatwhichstrugglesagainstevils,orthatwhichendures

them;

thatwhichbendstocircumstances,orthatwhichendeavourstobend

circumstancestoitself.

It is evident enough that neither of these types is separately

perfect

: that thecharactersofeachrequire tobemoreor lessmodifiedby

thoseofthe

other.Thereareinevitableevilsineverylot;&thereareavoidable,&

remediableones.Itisafaulttobeimpatientundertheformer;&it

isafault,thoughofanotherkind,tobepatientunderthelatter.

The commonplaces ofmoralists& the general sympathies of

mankind

areinfavourofthepassivetype.

Energeticcharacters,maybeadmiredbuttheacquiescent&submissive

arethosewhich

menpersonallyprefer.

Thepassivenessofourneighboursseemstoplayintothehands

ofourownactivity.Passivecharactersarelessofan

obstructioninourownway.Acontentedcharacterisnotaformidable

rival.Yetnothingismorecertainthanthatimprovement

inhumanaffairsiswhollytheworkofthenon-contented

characters;&moreoverthatitismucheasierfortheactive

mindtoacquirethevirtuesofpatience,thanforthepassiveoneto

acquirethoseofenergy

（一三六五）

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to

be room fordoubt .Apassive character,whichyields toobstacles

insteadof

strivingtoovercomethem,maynotindeedbeveryusefultoothers,no

more

than to itself, but itmight be expected to be at least inoffensive.

Contentment

istraditionallyoneofthefirstofmoralvirtues.Butitis

entirelyanerrortosupposethatcontentmentisthenaturalattendant

onpassivityofcharacter:&unlessitis,allthemoralconsequences

aremischievous.Wherethereexistsadesireforthingsnotpossessed

themindwhichdoesnotpotentially

possess thembymeansof itsownenergies,will lookwithhatred&

malice

onthosewhodo.Itisthepersonwhoisbestirringhimselfwithhopeful

prospectstogainriches,whofeelsgoodwilltowardsothersengagedin

orwhohavesucceededinthesamepursuit.Andwhenthisisthe

commoncase,thosewhoarenotequallysuccessfulhavehadthetone

giventotheirfeelingsbythegeneralhabitofthecountry.Iftheyhave

notbetteredtheirconditiontheyascribeittotheirnothavingtried,or

iftheyhavetried,thinkitistheirownfault,ortheirownpersonal

illlack.Butamongapeoplewhodesirewhatotherspossess,yetdonot

striveforit,ifthereisnotincessantgrumblingthat

fortune does not do for themwhat they do not attempt to do for

themselves

thesoilisatleastmostproductiveofenvy&malicetowardsthosewho

have

whattheyhavenot.Accordinglythisisthecommoncharacterofsociety

inapassivestateofthegeneralenergies.Justinproportionassuccess

（一三六三）

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九二

inlifehabituallyattributedtofatalityoraccident&nottoexertion,in

that

B_018

proportiondoestheenviouscharacterprevail.Themostenviousofall

mankindaretheAsiatics.InallOrientalmoralists,in

allOrientaltales,theenviousmanoccupiesamostconspicuousplace;

heistheterrorofallwhopossessanythingdesirable,beitpalace,

ahandsomechild,orevengoodhealth&spirits;thesupposedeffectof

his

mere lookconstitutes theallpervadingsuperstitionof theevil eye.

Nexttothe

Orientals inenviousdispositioncame theSouthernEuropeans.The

Spaniards

pursuedalltheirgreatmenwithit,embitteredtheirlives,&generally

succeeded inputtinganearlystopto theirsuccesses. In theFrench,

who

areessentiallyasouthernpeople,thedoubleeducationofdespotism&

Catholicismhas,inspiteoftheirimpulsivetemperament

madesubmission,&enduranceatoncethecharacteristicof

the people& theirmost received notion ofwisdom&excellence ;

meanwhile

envyof one another,&of all superiority, thoughnot reaching the

heightof

OrientalsorSpaniards, isapervading feeling toadegreewhich the

selfhelping

& struggling Anglo-Saxons have no experience of. There are,

undoubtedlyin

allcountries,contentedcharacters,whonotmerelydonotseek,

（一三六二）

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to

be room fordoubt .Apassive character,whichyields toobstacles

insteadof

strivingtoovercomethem,maynotindeedbeveryusefultoothers,no

more

than to itself, but itmight be expected to be at least inoffensive.

Contentment

istraditionallyoneofthefirstofmoralvirtues.Butitis

entirelyanerrortosupposethatcontentmentisthenaturalattendant

onpassivityofcharacter:&unlessitis,allthemoralconsequences

aremischievous.Wherethereexistsadesireforthingsnotpossessed

themindwhichdoesnotpotentially

possess thembymeansof itsownenergies,will lookwithhatred&

malice

onthosewhodo.Itisthepersonwhoisbestirringhimselfwithhopeful

prospectstogainriches,whofeelsgoodwilltowardsothersengagedin

orwhohavesucceededinthesamepursuit.Andwhenthisisthe

commoncase,thosewhoarenotequallysuccessfulhavehadthetone

giventotheirfeelingsbythegeneralhabitofthecountry.Iftheyhave

notbetteredtheirconditiontheyascribeittotheirnothavingtried,or

iftheyhavetried,thinkitistheirownfault,ortheirownpersonal

illlack.Butamongapeoplewhodesirewhatotherspossess,yetdonot

striveforit,ifthereisnotincessantgrumblingthat

fortune does not do for themwhat they do not attempt to do for

themselves

thesoilisatleastmostproductiveofenvy&malicetowardsthosewho

have

whattheyhavenot.Accordinglythisisthecommoncharacterofsociety

inapassivestateofthegeneralenergies.Justinproportionassuccess

（一三六三）

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butdonotdesire,whattheydonotalreadypossess,&thesenaturally

donotfeelillwilltowardsthosewhohaveanapparentlymorefavoured

lot.But

thegreatmassofapparentcontentment isrealdiscontent, combined

with

indolence,&whileittakesnolegitimatemeansofraisingitself,

delights in bringing others down to its own level.And ifwe look

narrowly

evenatthecasesofinnocentcontentment,weshallperceivethatthey

only excite our admiration, when the indifference is solely to

improvement

inexternalcircumstances,&iscombinedwithastrivingforperpetual

advancementinspiritualworth,orwithadisinterestedzealtobenefit

others.

Thecontentedman,orthecontentedfamily,whohavenoambition

tomake any one else happier, or to improve themselves inmoral

excellence

excitesinusnoadmiration.Werightlyconsiderthissortof

contentmentasmereunmanliness&wantofspirit.Thecontentwhich

weadmireiseithertheabilitytodocheerfullywithoutwhat

cannotbehad,or the justappreciationof thecomparativevalueof

different

B_019

［Leftsideofpage.Bquire018verso.］

(a)NothingcanbemoreremarkabletothosewholiveinFrance,after

having

lived inEngland, than the passive endurance of theFrenchunder

avoidableonly.

（一三六一）

180

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九〇

IfanEnglishrailwaytrainstops,orlingersontheroad,scoresofthe

passengersrequire

toknowthereasonwhy;&ifthereasonisnotsatisfactory,thenext

daysome

oneormoreofthemuntototheTimes.

TheFrench,thoughanaturallymoreimpatientpeople,never

seemtoconcernthemselvesaboutthematter.Andthisdifferenceruns

through

mostoftheconcernsoflife.

［Rightsideofpage.Bquire019recto.］

objectsofdesire,&thewillingnesstodispensewiththelessinorder

topursue

thegreater.Nowthereareexcellenciesmostnaturaltothecharacter

inproportion

asitisactivelyengagedinendeavouringtoimproveitslot.Hewhois

constantly

measuring his activity against difficulties, learns what are the

difficulties

insuperabletohim,&whatthose,theovercomingofwhichisnotworth

the

effort.Hewhosethoughts&activitiesareallneededfor,&

habituallyemployedin,practicable&usefulenterprises,istheperson

ofall

othersleastlikelytolethisminddwellwithhabitualdiscontentupon

thingsnotworthobtaining,ornotworthhisattaining.Thustheactive

selfhelpingcharacterisnotonlythebestinitself,butitisthesurest

mode of requiring all that is really desirable or excellent in the

opposite

（一三六〇）

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butdonotdesire,whattheydonotalreadypossess,&thesenaturally

donotfeelillwilltowardsthosewhohaveanapparentlymorefavoured

lot.But

thegreatmassofapparentcontentment isrealdiscontent, combined

with

indolence,&whileittakesnolegitimatemeansofraisingitself,

delights in bringing others down to its own level.And ifwe look

narrowly

evenatthecasesofinnocentcontentment,weshallperceivethatthey

only excite our admiration, when the indifference is solely to

improvement

inexternalcircumstances,&iscombinedwithastrivingforperpetual

advancementinspiritualworth,orwithadisinterestedzealtobenefit

others.

Thecontentedman,orthecontentedfamily,whohavenoambition

tomake any one else happier, or to improve themselves inmoral

excellence

excitesinusnoadmiration.Werightlyconsiderthissortof

contentmentasmereunmanliness&wantofspirit.Thecontentwhich

weadmireiseithertheabilitytodocheerfullywithoutwhat

cannotbehad,or the justappreciationof thecomparativevalueof

different

B_019

［Leftsideofpage.Bquire018verso.］

(a)NothingcanbemoreremarkabletothosewholiveinFrance,after

having

lived inEngland, than the passive endurance of theFrenchunder

avoidableonly.

（一三六一）

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八九

type.

Thestriving,go-aheadcharacterofEngland&theUnitedStates

isonlya

subjectofdisapprovingcriticismonaccountofthevery

secondaryobjectsonwhichitcommonlyexpendsits

energies. In itself it is the foundation of all hope for the general

improvement

ofmankind.Ithasbeenremarkedthatwheneveranythinggoes

amiss,theimpulseofFrenchpeopleistosay,Ilfautdelapatience;

&ofEnglishpeople.Whatashame.Thepeoplewhothinkitashame

whenanythinggoeswrong-whorush to theconclusion that theevil

could

havebeen&oughttohavebeenprevented,arethosewho inthe long

run

domosttomaketheworldbetter（a）.Ifthedesiresarelowplaced,if

they

extend to littlebeyondphysical comfort,& the showof riches, the

results

oftheenergywillbelittlemorethanthecontinualextensionofman’s

powerovernature;butthisinitselfismakingroom&preparingthe

mechanicalappliancesforthehighestintellectual&socialachievements

&whiletheenergyisthere,itissuretobeappliedbysome,&there

arealways

hopesthatitmaybeappliedlargely&effectively,totheperfectingnot

merelyofman’soutwardconveniencesbutofhisinwardnature.

Inactivity,unaspiringness,absenceofdesire,isafar

morefatalhindrancetohumanimprovementthananymisdirectionof

（一三五九）

182

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　第五十六巻第四号（二〇二〇年三月）

八八

B_020

theactivities;&itisthatwhichkeepsback,inasavageorsemisavage

state, all that vastmajority of the human racewho have not yet

emerged

fromsuchacondition.

Now there can be no doubtwhatever that the passive type of

character

istheoneprincipallyfavouredbythegovernmentofoneorofafew&

theactiveselfhelpingtypebythatoftheMany.Submissiveness

totheprescriptionsofmenasiftheywerenecessitiesofnature,isthe

lesson

practically inculcatedbyallgovernmentsupon thosewhoarewholly

without

participationinthem.Thelaw,orthewillofsuperiorsmustbe

passivelyyieldedto.Itisotherwisewhenahumanbeing

feelsundernoinsuperableexternalrestraintbutthat

ofthenecessitiesofnature,ormandatesofsocietywhichhehashis

shareinimposing&whichitisopentohim,ifhethinksthemwrong

tomakeapublicmanifestationofhisdissentfrom,&exerthimself

activelytogetaltered.Nodoubt,underagovernmentpartiallypopular,

thisfreedommaybeexercisedevenbythosewhoarenotpartakers,in

thefull

privilegesofcitizenship.Butitisagreatadditionalstimulustoanyone

feelings

ofselfhelp&selfreliancewhenhestartsfromanevenground

&hasnottofeelthathissuccessdependsupontheimpressionhe

canmakeuponthesentiments&dispositionsofabodyofwhomheis

notone.Themaximumoftheinvigoratingeffectoffreedomuponthe

characterisonlyobtainedwhenthepersonactedoneitherisorhasit

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八九

type.

Thestriving,go-aheadcharacterofEngland&theUnitedStates

isonlya

subjectofdisapprovingcriticismonaccountofthevery

secondaryobjectsonwhichitcommonlyexpendsits

energies. In itself it is the foundation of all hope for the general

improvement

ofmankind.Ithasbeenremarkedthatwheneveranythinggoes

amiss,theimpulseofFrenchpeopleistosay,Ilfautdelapatience;

&ofEnglishpeople.Whatashame.Thepeoplewhothinkitashame

whenanythinggoeswrong-whorush to theconclusion that theevil

could

havebeen&oughttohavebeenprevented,arethosewho inthe long

run

domosttomaketheworldbetter（a）.Ifthedesiresarelowplaced,if

they

extend to littlebeyondphysical comfort,& the showof riches, the

results

oftheenergywillbelittlemorethanthecontinualextensionofman’s

powerovernature;butthisinitselfismakingroom&preparingthe

mechanicalappliancesforthehighestintellectual&socialachievements

&whiletheenergyisthere,itissuretobeappliedbysome,&there

arealways

hopesthatitmaybeappliedlargely&effectively,totheperfectingnot

merelyofman’soutwardconveniencesbutofhisinwardnature.

Inactivity,unaspiringness,absenceofdesire,isafar

morefatalhindrancetohumanimprovementthananymisdirectionof

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八七

inhis

powertobecome,acitizenasfullyprivilegedasanyother.But

whatisstillmoreimportantthanthismatteroffeeling,isthepractical

disciplinewhich thewhole character obtains from the occasional

demand

madeuponthecitizenstoexerciseforatime&intheirturnsome

publicfunction.Notwithstandingthegreatdefectsofthesocialsystem

&

moralideasofantiquity,thepracticeofthedicastery&the

ecclesiaraisedtheintellectualstandardofanaverageAthenian

citizenforbeyondanythingyetexperiencedinanymassofmen

ancientormodern.Amonginnumerableproofs,manifestinevery

B_021

pageofourgreathistorianofGreece, it issufficient toobservethe

highqualityof

the addresseswhich their great oratorsdeemedbest calculated to

influence

theirunderstanding&theirwill.Thesamebenefit, though isamuch

less

degree,isproducedonEnglishcitizensofthelowermiddleclassbythe

liabilitytoserveon juries&toserveparishoffices ;whichthoughit

does

notoccurtosomanynorissocontinuousastoapproachtothe

publiceducationwhicheverycitizenofAthensobtainedfromhis

democraticinstitutions,musthaveasensibleeffectindeveloping

theintelligence&extendingtherangeofideas.Morethanall,the

participationoftheprivatecitizen,ifevenrarely,inpublicfunctions,

isoneofthemostsalutarykindsofmoralinstitution.

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184

政経研究

　第五十六巻第四号（二〇二〇年三月）

八六

Where itdoesnotexist, there isno feelingwhatever thataprivate

family

innoeminentsocialsituation,overanydutiestosociety,except

toobeythelaws,&submittothegovernment.Thereisnounselfish

sentimentof identificationwith thepublic.All the thoughts,all the

feelings

ofinterest&ofdutyareabsorbedintheindividual&inthefamily.

Thereisnotathoughtofanycollectiveinterest,ofanyobjectsto

bepursuedjointlywith,butonlyattheexpenseof,&incompetition

withothers.Aneighbourisnotanally,oranassociate,however

heisneverengagedinanycommonundertakingforthegoodofboth;

he

isthereforeonlyarival.Thusprivatemoralitysufferswhilepublic

isactuallyextinct.Werethistheonlypossiblestateofthings,the

utmostaspirationsofthelawgiverorthemoralistcouldonlyreach

torenderingthebulkofthecommunityharmless;makingthena

flockofsheep,innocentlynibblingthegrasssidebyside,&notwolves

mergingupononeanother.

Fromtheseaccumulatedconsiderationsitisevidentthattheonly

governmentwhichcanfullysatisfyalltheexigenciesofthesocial

state,isgovernmentinwhichthewholepeopleparticipate;&since

theycannotinanycommunityexceedingasinglesmalltown,participate

B_022

personallyinanybutsomeveryminorportionsofthepublicbusiness,

it

followsthattheidealtypeofgoodgovernmentmustberepresentative.

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ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿（川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー）

八七

inhis

powertobecome,acitizenasfullyprivilegedasanyother.But

whatisstillmoreimportantthanthismatteroffeeling,isthepractical

disciplinewhich thewhole character obtains from the occasional

demand

madeuponthecitizenstoexerciseforatime&intheirturnsome

publicfunction.Notwithstandingthegreatdefectsofthesocialsystem

&

moralideasofantiquity,thepracticeofthedicastery&the

ecclesiaraisedtheintellectualstandardofanaverageAthenian

citizenforbeyondanythingyetexperiencedinanymassofmen

ancientormodern.Amonginnumerableproofs,manifestinevery

B_021

pageofourgreathistorianofGreece, it issufficient toobservethe

highqualityof

the addresseswhich their great oratorsdeemedbest calculated to

influence

theirunderstanding&theirwill.Thesamebenefit, though isamuch

less

degree,isproducedonEnglishcitizensofthelowermiddleclassbythe

liabilitytoserveon juries&toserveparishoffices ;whichthoughit

does

notoccurtosomanynorissocontinuousastoapproachtothe

publiceducationwhicheverycitizenofAthensobtainedfromhis

democraticinstitutions,musthaveasensibleeffectindeveloping

theintelligence&extendingtherangeofideas.Morethanall,the

participationoftheprivatecitizen,ifevenrarely,inpublicfunctions,

isoneofthemostsalutarykindsofmoralinstitution.

（一三五七）

184

ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿（川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー）

八五

注（ 1 ） 筆者たちが翻刻できなかったものを画像で示す。以下同じ。

（ 2 ）

（ 3 ）

（ 4 ）

（ 5 ）

（ 6 ）

（ 7 ）

（ 8 ）

beproof［?］

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186